The King is Dead, Long Live the King

-9 AD- Augustus was now getting pretty old.  Because of all the bad luck and his old age, he was starting to grow more cautious and paranoid.
   -More and more responsibility was being given to Tiberius as well.
-Over the course of his reign, Augustus had really done a lot to improve the infrastructure of the empire.
   -Due to corruption and property rights, there were a lot of works and shit that could have been improved or torn down and then rebuilt anew, but weren't.
      -Augustus worked long and hard to untangle the mess and get shit running smoothly (with the help of Agrippa, too).
   -Augustus also introduced a police/fire department (the vigiles), something that hadn't existed before!
      -Because of this, Augustus had finally put a stop to obnoxious shit like Crassus extorting property owners as their buildings burned.
   -Augustus also put an end to tax farming out in the provinces.
      -What was tax farming?
         -A private agency would bid to collect taxes in a certain area.  The winning bid paid to the Senate was the money that the government received as the "tax revenue".  The business model was then for the tax agency to go out and raise extra taxes from the populace to cover the price the agency had already paid in addition to a profit for themselves.
            -Obviously, this grew to be extremely corrupt and fucked up, and resulted in constant revolts and problems.
   -Augustus also set up a central treasury solely dedicated to the payment of Rome's military.
      -This took the power out of the hands of the generals, who were paying for a lot of the armies themselves.  This would help prevent future problems with generals who would want to seize power for themselves.
-Augustus also was quite tolerant of freedom of speech and criticism of the state, as his advisers had wisely advised him to allow people to openly speak about their grievances, as censorship would just cause shit to go underground.
   -Tiberius, on the other hand, was insecure and would crack down on freedom speech; criticism of the regime was treason.
-Before dying, Augustus wrote an autobiography that portrayed himself in a very flattering light (of course)- "The Deeds of the Divine Augustus".
   -Augustus also wrote documents recording how he wanted his funeral instruction, for Tiberius on how to rule, and his will.
-13/14 AD- Augustus travels to the tiny island where Agrippa Postumus had been exiled to.
   -Why did Augustus do this?
      -There are many theories, but it's actually unclear.  It's entirely possible that Augustus also wanted this trip to be kept secret. 
         -One theory suggests that maybe Augustus wanted to see if Agrippa Postumus was ready to come back to society.
         -Another theory suggests that maybe Augustus wanted to see if Agrippa Postumus would try and seize power once Augustus had died.
         -Others have suggested that maybe Augustus wanted to see if Agrippa Postumus had changed and would actually be a better heir than Tiberius.
   -Regardless, Augustus had decided that Postumus Agrippa was too dangerous to return to society (for a variety of reasons, possibly), and so he mysteriously ended up dead later that year... did Augustus order his death?  Did Livia?  Maybe even Tiberius?  No one knows!
-14 AD- Tiberius set out to govern in Illyrium, and Augustus went to his private villa in Nola (outside of modern-day Naples, Campania) to recuperate from a serious illness. 
   -Everyone knew that his time was getting close :(
   -With Livia by his side, Augustus finally died on August 19, 14 AD, at the age of 75.  Bro had ruled Rome for over 40 years!
   -His alleged last words were something like, ""Have I played the part well? Then applaud as I exit".
   -Of course, there are many conspiracy theories about what REALLY happened regarding Augustus' death, typically involving Livia, but who knows? 
-Tiberius returned to Rome after Augustus' death. Everyone knew that Augustus had died, and Tiberius was to control.
   -According to Augustus' will, 2/3 of his property was given to Tiberius.  The remaining 1/3 went to Livia. 
      -Surprisingly, Augustus had posthumously adopted Livia as his daughter (!) as well! 
         -This allowed Livia to continue enjoying power as an official daughter of Augustus (as opposed to just being his widow).
-Augustus was also deified as an official Roman god- "the Divine Augustus".
-So, what about Augustus' legacy?
   -It's actually complicated... was he a tyrant?  A puppet of Livia?  A benevolent dictator?
      -Maybe he was all of these things.  Or maybe none!  Either way, he's usually considered to be Rome's greatest emperor, in addition to being one of the most important and influential people in all of Western civilization!

Teutoburg Nightmares

-2 BC- Augustus finally learn about how Julia (the Elder) was (not-so-secretly) banging everyone, and at this point now not just elites but pretty much anyone, even slaves!
   -Against everyone's advice, Augustus decided to exile Julia to the tiny island of Pandateria (modern-day Ventotene, roughly 70 km west of Naples) and then he exiled or executed her various alleged lovers (as long as there was reasonable evidence or proof and that they could be properly identified).
      -Even though Julia had been so promiscuous, everyone still loved her, and the commoners had begged Augustus to not exile her.  After she was exiled, they begged for Augustus to let her come back.
-Meanwhile, Gaius and Lucius (Julia's sons and Augustus' grandsons) were growing up fast under the supervision of Augustus.  However, they began to also grow spoiled, clever, and arrogant.
   -Augustus' plan was to make Gaius a consul when he turned 20, and then Lucius would be made consul after that when he turned 20.
-1 BC- Gaius was sent to the Greek island of Samos to set up a base of operations there as a commander of Rome's eastern provinces.
-Meanwhile, Tiberius was still chilling in Rhodes but had grown up unhappy with his self-imposed exile.
   -Contrary to what he expected, he had proven himself to be dispensable, especially since his marriage to Julia had been nullified once Augustus found out about her sluttery.  So, Tiberius announced that he was going to return to Rome, but Augustus actually told him that he couldn't!
      -Maybe he just didn't want any more drama or power struggles, but regardless Tiberius was forced to remain in Rhodes, this time though not by choice.
-2 AD- Lucius died from a mysterious illness while traveling through Gaul to Spain on some assignment ...
   -Augustus was devastated and realized that it was all up to Gaius now to carry the Augustus' legacy!
-4 AD- Gaius dies!  He was wounded while returning from Armenia back to Rome and died of infection.
   -Augustus, once again, was devastated.  It looked like now his only hope was...Tiberius (sad trombone).
-So, the question needs to be asked: was Livia behind the deaths of Lucius and Gaius??
   -Later events (e.g. mysterious deaths, exiles, etc.) seem to draw further suspicion of a vast conspiracy. 
      -However, there's simply no proof :/
-Tiberius returned to Rome and was officially adopted by Augustus, making him Augustus' official heir.
   -Tiberius also had his old powers restored by the Senate.
      -In exchange for this, Tiberius agreed to adopt Germanicus (who was now 20) as his own son, as Germanicus was seen as a promising, developing natural leader.  His original name was most likely Nero Claudius Drusus, but he received the agnomen "Germanicus" when his father (Drusus (the Elder)) received the same agnomen for his campaigns in Germania.  Of course, Drusus' other kids received this agnomen as well, but for whatever reason it stuck as a nickname for Germanicus and not his other siblings. Germanicus was also married to Augustus' granddaughter, Agrippina (the Elder).
         -What about Augustus' other grandchildren?
            -Gaius- dead.
            -Lucius- dead.
            -Agrippa Postumus- the only potential male heir left of this group, last surviving son of Agrippa and Julia.  However, he was violent and cruel, or at least just a cunt, and so he was exiled to a super tiny island of Pianosa off the west coast of Italy (about 14km southwest of Elba).
            -Livilla- would eventually either be executed or forced to commit suicide after being found guilty of involvement in the murder of Drusus the Younger (son of Tiberius).
            -Claudius- thought to be a stammering idiot, but would actually end up being a future emperor!
-7 AD- the Roman campaign in Germania seems to be going rather well, as the Romans were moving forward and securing alliances with various Germanic tribes.
   -However, overall the Germanic hordes still hated Rome with a burning passion.
   -The Roman governor assigned to the task of conquering Germania was Publius Quintillius Varus.
   -The key German horde leader was a dude named Arminius (possibly a Latinized version of the old German name Hermann).
      -The Romans thought Arminius was their friend and ally, but really he hated Rome and was planning on betraying them when the time was right.
-9 AD- Arminius' plan had come to fruition.
   -In September, Arminius told the Romans that some local Germanic villages nearby their encampment had decided to rebel, so the Romans decided to bring three legions (the 17th, 18th, and 19th) to go fuck them up.
      -Of course, it was an ambush.  To make matters worse, Varus was probably a shitty commander and didn't take the proper precautions.
         -The troops marched sloppily, Varus allowed for camp followers to come along with their slow-moving supply wagons, etc.
         -The path was a narrow strip of land between a marsh and a hill (near modern-day Osnabrück, Lower Saxony).
            -As Varus and the legions passed through this area, Arminius attacked!
               -The Romans were completely surprised, cut in half, and completely fucking slaughtered!  Those who survived were able to make a fortified camp nearby, but they still had to fiht their way out of the forest.
                  -Realizing that the situation was hopeless, Varus and the others committed suicide in the camp.
               -All in all, about 22,000 Roman troops died in the battle.
-The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest was devestating news for Rome, and its memory haunted Augustus.  It's possible that it's also the reason why the Romans decided to cool off on Germania for awhile.
   -In the 19th century, German nationalists would recognize Arminius as a national folk hero!
      -However, in the aftermath of the battle Augustus hadn't quite given up yet, as he did send Tiberius to Germania to make another attempt at conquering the Germanic hordes.
         -This time, the Romans tried everything- marauding, raids, enslavement, establishing permanent outposts, etc.
            -Eventually, the Romans realized that the best way to fight the Germanic barbarians was to simply not give them a reason to unify.  Also, as long as the Romans stayed west of the Rhine River, the Germanic tribes kept themselves busy fighting each other.
-To prevent the Germans from attacking Roman territory, the Romans stationed eight legions along the Rhine (this would last for hundreds of years!).

All in the Family

-Tiberius and Drusus, stepsons of Augustus and biological sons of Livia Drusilla (Augustus' wife) and Tiberius Claudius Nero (her first husband) were put in charge of pacifying the barbarian hordes of the Alps, allegedly due to their harassment of traveling Romans.
   -Augustus did this to put these dudes into the public spotlight so that they would be considered worthy successors should he die soon.
      -They had been adopted by Augustus when they were infants.
      -However, there was a problem that threatened to make Tiberius and Drusus obsolete- Agrippa had married Augustus' daughter, Julia, and she was proving to be quite fertile (especially in producing sons) ;)  Uh-oh! 
         -While this made Augustus happy because they would be suitable heirs, they were too young at this point if Augustus were to suddenly drop dead; plus, this would obviously cause drama later on the longer he lived. 
            -Augustus also had Tiberius marry Vipsania, Agrippa's daughter, and Drusus married Antonia, the daughter of Marc Antony! 
-17 BC- the Romans lose a minor battle with a Germanic tribe in Gaul, and so Augustus uses this as an excuse to try and invade the region of Germania between the Rhine and Elbe Rivers.  Augustus remained in Gaul for three years during these wars.
   -Meanwhile, two other major wars were being fought elsewhere:  the Alps and Illyricum.
      -For the wars in the Alps, Tiberius and Drusus invaded the Alps in order to pacify the mountain hordes living there.
         -Tiberius and Drusus decided that it would be too difficult to simply beat the hordes into submission, so instead they focused on mass deportations instead via enslavement and/or relocation.  However, women, children, and the elderly were allowed to remain in their homes.
      -For the wars in Illyricum (known as the Pannonian War), Agrippa was sent to pacify the barbarian hordes living there who had never truly been conquered.
         -Unfortunately, he got pretty sick while he was there and had to return to Rome in March of 12 BC. However, he didn't make it and died somewhere in Campania :(
-13 BC- Tiberius becomes consul for the first time, which was crazy at the time because he was so young (the age restrictions had been lifted under Augustus).
   -Lepidus also died during this time, having been allowed to hold the office of Pontifex Maximus and live in relative peace by Augustus. 
      -Augustus, as princeps, was now in charge of all three facets of Roman rule- religion, government, and military.
 -Anyway, so the death of Agrippa was a really big deal, and the news of his passing hit Augustus especially hard.
   -Agrippa wasn't just a friend, but he was also a fiercely loyal, powerful ally.  Augustus could give him military power and not have to worry about him fucking it up.
      -Now, any up-and-coming commander could pose a threat to Augustus' grip on absolute power.
         -Also, what to do with Julia (Augustus' daughter and Agrippa's widow (second time she was a widow now!))?  Well, in order to keep things "in the family", Augustus married her to Tiberius! 
            -Tiberius also inherited Agrippa's mission to pacify Illyricum.
            -Unfortunately for Tiberius, he wanted to stay married to Vipsania, whom he loved!  Also, Julia was his step-sister, which was weird. 
               -This one-two punch of forced divorce from Vipsania and marriage to Julia caused Tiberius to grow bitter and even straight-up rageful; he had really loved Vipsania and was completely incompatible with Julia.
                  -Tiberius became kind of like Stannis Baratheon- cold, humorless, and possessing of zero charisma; however, he was also quite talented and clever as well.
                  -Julia, on the other hand, had been raised as a princess and was used to being completely pampered, but now she was probably just jaded and burned out since she had constantly been used as a pawn in so many of Augustus' schemes.   So, she began to act out sexually and started fucking a bunch of the wealthy and powerful elites of Rome in order to get back at her super-moral and fidelity-obsessed father.  She also absolutely hated Tiberius, and their only child, Tiberillus, died in infancy.
-Meanwhile, Drusus remained happily married to Antonia, and they had three children.
   -He was also placed in charge of the campaign in Germania.
   -Drusus and Antonia's three children:
      -Germanicus (Nero Claudius Tiberius)
      -Livilla (Julia Livilla)
      -Claudius (Tiberius Claudius Nero)
   -Everyone liked Drusus; he was very charismatic, as was Antonia, who was universally loved.
-11-9 BC- Roman wars of expansion into Illyricum (to pacify) and Germania (to conquer).
   -Tiberius had a much easier time in Illyricum this time around, as the hordes there had become too fractured to put up a strong resistance.
   -Germania was a lot more wild... initially, Drusus was actually able to push all the way up to the Elbe River, but he kept on being pushed back every winter.
-9 BC- Drusus accidentally fell off a horse and succumbed to an infection :(
   -Antonia never remarried.
-8 BC- Gaius Maecenas (Augustus' closest adviser) died in October, which was a huge blow to Augustus since Maecenas had been so influential in shaping Augustus' public perception (in addition to being a key member of Augustus' inner circle).
-7 BC- A pro-Parthian king was enthroned in Armenia; Augustus commanded Tiberius to go and take him out.  Tiberius, however, refused- he was retiring from politics!
   -Why did Tiberius do this?
      -One theory is that he knew he was just a pawn, so why bother since his importance was soon to expire in the face of younger, more capable heirs (such as Gaius and Lucius, his younger step-brothers).
      -Another theory is that Tiberius wanted to step aside in order to not have to compete with his step-brothers for power, and also perhaps to get away from Julia as well haha.
   -Tiberius' refusal to get involved with Armenia really pissed off Augustus, but Tiberius didn't care and set sail for the island of Rhodes, where he wanted to retire.
   -One clue to his true motives, however, was that he didn't ever relinquish his legal powers that had been given to him by the Senate.  Perhaps he just wanted to emphasize how important was after all, and wasn't just one of Augustus' many pawns.
      -This put Augustus in a bind, as it was true that Tiberius was important, but also Gaius and Lucius were still too young to be heirs and manage the power of princeps should Augustus die.  What to do?
         -Augustus decided that he had no choice but to try and live until his grandsons reached maturity (both in age and political influence).

Reigning Supreme

-Augustus was no longer preoccupied with consolidating power- he was finally the supreme ruler of the Roman Empire!
-Surprisingly, one of the fist crises of his rule was actually a grain shortage, but this ultimately ended up working in his favor.
   -The masses were sick and tired of the corrupt oligarchy running the show and wanted Augustus to kick some ass and get shit running smoothly again...
      -No more "consul-at-large" or "princeps" nonsense- they wanted Augustus as dictator-for-life!
         -However, Augustus turned down the position, pointing out that the ban on any dictators (set up after the assassination of Julius Caesar) was still in effect.
-22 BC- Augustus now wanted to focus on foreign affairs- Agrippa was sent west to Spain to make sure shit stayed under control there while Augustus himself traveled east (maybe to Alexandria?).
   -It was time to figure out how to deal with the Parthians.  It was obvious that the Romans probably wouldn't be able to conquer them, but at the same time the Parthians still had Roman war trophies on display in their court, a huge embarrassment to Rome. 
   -Anyway, Augustus felt that the key to gaining leverage with the Parthians was through Armenia, which at this time were a Parthian ally.
      -Augustus sent his legions to invade Armenia, with his stepson Tiberius (Livia's son from her previous marriage) leading the troops!
         -However, when Tiberius arrived, he found Armenia in the middle of a revolt and civil war!  The monarch, Artaxias II, had been placed on the throne by the Parthians after they invaded the kingdom (which at that time had been dominated by Rome).  However, Artaxias II proved to be a very unpopular ruler for whatever reason(s), so they sent envoys begging Augustus to come in and remove Artaxias II from the throne and install his much more popular brother, Tigranes III, on the throne in his place.
            -So, when Tiberius arrived he crowned Tigranes III as the new king of Armenia, and Armenia was back under Roman domination.
      -Augustus and the Parthian king, Phraates IV, then worked out a peace treaty which said that the Romans wouldn't invade or fuck with the Parthians in exchange for the Parthians returning the Roman war trophies and POWs.
         -Augustus considered this to be a major highlight of his international relations career.
-Also, it was at this point that Augustus made it so that he had his own private military for his princeps position in the name of national security. 
   -This private military was known as the Praetorian Guard. 
      -Augustus set up the Praetorian Guard because it was illegal for him to command the legions of the Italian peninsula from his position, so that's how he got around that.
-Augustus then focused on trimming the immensely bloated Senate numbers from 1000 down to 300.     -He made it so that you had to have a lot of money to be in the Senate, but due to corruption this changed very little. 
      -So, finally he made an inner circle of senators, quaestors, and other officials (about 30 members in total). Then, once they worked out their plans/objectives, the plans/objectives would be hashed out in the Senate to vote on.  It wasn't perfect, but it did make shit more efficient.
         -He also began to pass anti-corruption laws and a civil service sector that offered government jobs across the empire to all- even slaves and freemen!  Surprisingly, this kept everyone happy; the rich got nice jobs and the common folk finally had a hand in government administration.
-Augustus was also super-wealthy at this point. 
   -In fact, he was the richest dude in the empire, which gave him a ton of leverage and the ability to really get shit done. 
      -This made the public love him even more.
-Augustus also wanted to bring back traditional Roman morals and values since society had become so decadent and debauched.
   -He wanted to focus on building a society based on strong familiar structures to set up a stable culture steeped in morality.
      -Men were to be the workers and warriors, and the women were to keep the home nice and be baby factories.
         -Due to the shrinking birth rates, Augustus implemented incentives to encourage larger families and marriage, and cheating on your spouse became a capital offense!
            -Of course, this was really silly and poorly enforced, especially because Augustus was banging random chicks all the time outside of his own marriage haha.
-Among other points of interest in the empire, Augustus really wanted to secure the Alps, since they were infested with barbarian hordes that had still yet to be conquered.
   -So, he put Tiberius in charge of this, along with Tiberius' younger brother, Drusus, as co-general.

Caesar Augustus

-So now what?  Everything was up in the air, and all eyes were on Octavian.
   -First, he went and deleted Marc Antony's name from all records, histories, texts, statues, monuments, etc.
   -Second, he declared that no one from the Antonia family (or "gens") could be named "Marcus" again (haha)!
      -Also, many anti-Octavian allies and conspirators were either executed or exiled.  However, some former enemies were shown mercy or incorporated into Octavian's administration, so it wasn't all just a brutal purge.
-29 BC- Octavian (and Gaius Maecenas, one of his closest political advisors) commissioned a bunch of poets to begin writing epic poems and shit glorifying Octavian and Rome, the ultimate work from this being Virgil's "The Aeneid", finally published c. 19 BC.
   -"The Aeneid" attempted to link the Julii clan with the famed Aeneas (hero of the Trojan War) and how Octavian's rise to power was planned by the gods.
-When Octavian threw the inevitable triumph(s) upon his return to Rome, because Marc Antony's name had been erased from everything, only Cleopatra was referenced; this made it seem like it was only a war against a demonic foreign queen upstart.
   -Octavian also forced Cleopatra and Antony's kids to join the parade in chains- absent was Caesarian, who had been executed back in Alexandria.
     -After this, the children were raised by Octavia (the Younger, Octavian's sister), who later married off Cleopatra Selene to King Juba II of Numidia.
      -Also seen at the triumphs were Marcus Claudius Marcellus (Octavian's nephew, son of Octavia) and Tiberius Claudius Nero (Octavian's stepson from Livia's first marriage and the future Emperor Tiberius).
         -Octavian had begun to groom Marcellus to replace him as ruler.  Of course, Tiberius was a back-up plan, but Livia pushed heavily for him to be the first choice.  Unfortunately for her, Octavian DGAF and Marcellus remained his first choice.
-28 BC- Now both Octavian and Agrippa were consuls.
   -One of the first things they did was annul all the laws made under the Second Triumvirate.
   -Meanwhile, 60 legions were still mobilized...what to do with them all?
      -Octavian decided to keep 28 legions on, and the rest were FINALLY able to retire.
         -These 28 were posted mainly in Gaul, Hispania, and Syria.
         -Octavian was able to finally pay for the legions to retire because he now had Egypt formally annexed as an official part of the Roman Empire, which meant lots of money coming in :D
   -Octavian and Agrippa then reduced the size of the Senate from 1000 to 800 and brought in rich supporters from across the empire, although this kind of backfired and Octavian ended up allowing anyone who wanted to stay in the Senate to do so.
   -During this time, two great temples were also built- the Temple of Apollo (that Octavian had vowed he would build if he were to defeat Sextus Pompey), where Octavian ordered the Sibylline Books (sacred texts that dated back to the time of the Roman kings!) transferred from the Temple of Jupiter in order to give it more legitimacy, and the Pantheon, a great temple dedicated to all the gods (commissioned by Agrippa).
      -However, the Pantheon built at this time was destroyed in a fire in 80 AD, and so the Pantheon we know today is actually a remodel/remake commissioned by Emperor Hadrian around 126 AD.  This remake included the dome, which was not included with the original Pantheon.
-27 BC- Octavian says he's going to step down and retire, but the Senate begs for him to stay.  Why?  Because Octavian at this point had stacked the Senate in his favor and he knew that they would continue to benefit from his rule.  So, Octavian "realizes" that they want him to stay, so he appoints himself as proconsul of Hispania, Gaul, Cilicia, Syria, Cyprus, and Egypt.
   -He wanted the provinces that had all the military stationed there, so after this 20 out of the 28 legions were now directly under his control.
   -Also, because he was no longer a triumvirate butstill obviously a special and powerful dude, he was awarded a new title by the Senate for which he most well-known as today- "Augustus" ("Revered One").  However, Octavian (or Augustus, as we'll now refer to him as!) insisted that he be referred to simply as "Princeps" ("First Citizen"), which was much more humble.
-After establishing the terms with the Senate, he left Rome to go tour the empire, but also to give the Senate a breather and a (false) sense of independence.
   -Augustus first went to Gaul, where he was able to calm down the local barbarian tribes that had been pissed off at the way Rome had been administering the region (which was bordering on anarchy and chaos).
      -Then he traveled to Hispania, which was in a similar situation.  However, the barbarian hordes there never really accepted Roman rule, so Augustus decided to put an end to any rebellious attitudes once and for all.
         -It took him a few years of fighting guerrilla barbarian armies, but he finally got them to submit.
-During this time, Augustus also was frequently sick, so he often thought of his own death and succession- he still planned on Marcellus to succeed him, and he wanted to solidify Marcellus' legitimacy by having him marry Julia (the Elder, Augustus' own daughter, gross!).
    -In order to kick off Marcellus' political career Augustus ordered a bunch of epic games to be held in Marcellus' name so that the people would like him.
-24 BC- Augustus returned to Rome, but immediately had a falling out with Maecenas.
   -There had been an alleged plot to assassinate Augustus that may or may not have involved Maecenas' brother-in-law (on his sister's side), Lucius Lucinius Varro Murena. 
      -Because Maecenas didn't immediately go to Augustus first when he (Maecenas) learned of this plot and instead had talked to his wife about what was going on with her brother, Augustus was really pissed off.
-23 BC- just as Marcellus was about to take office (as an aedile) and kick off his political career for real, Augustus got super sick (probably typhoid fever).
   -However, Augustus miraculously survived!  Being sick had given him a lot of perspective, too (since it was expected that he was going to die), so he decided to step down as proconsul. 
      -He then appointed himself a special version of tribune as well as a "consul-at-large" or something, which granted him the power of having final say over everything.
         -This helped give the illusion of control more to the Senate.  He also held back more in meddling in a lot of the minor internal affairs, as well as avoiding public displays of power.
   -Agrippa was also really popular with the Senate, especially more than Augustus.
      -During this time, Agrippa relocated his home and office to the Greek island of Samos, off the coast of Asia Minor. 
         -Why he did this is kind of a mystery...
            -Some have theorized that he was exiled by Augustus for getting too powerful, while others have proposed that he was sent by Augustus to look after the East.
   -Anyway, by the end of 23 BC, Marcellus suddenly became sick and died!
      -Octavia went into mourning for the rest of her life.
-Augustus needed a new heir, and quickly!
   -Maybe Agrippa?

Actium

-31 BC- The Battle of Actium (modern day Preveza, Greece)!
   -Before the battle, shit was looking grim for Marc Antony.  His troops were sick and dying, plus his foreign allies and even his own men were deserting him.
      -Many reasons for why, as even his own senior staff was deserting him, but one excuse was that Cleopatra was obnoxious in her position as leader of the troops.
      -To try and break out, Antony sent his fleet out from the bay to try and break through Octavian and Agrippa's blockade, but to no avail.  What was he going to do??
         -Desperate, Antony tried to break out with his fleet on more time, except this time the goal was just to get Antony and Cleopatra out so they could get back to Alexandria.
            -This officially kicked off the Battle of Actium!
   -As Antony moved to push Agrippa's fleet out of the way, Octavian was too busy fighting Antony's other fleet in the south, and so Cleopatra saw that the middle was now temporarily open.  She decided to go for it!
      -Cleopatra's fleet actually hadn't been fighting because on Cleopatra's ship was Antony's treasury.  So, they were purely on the defensive... as long as the treasure wasn't captured or Antony killed, there was hope.
         -Antony saw what Cleopatra was doing so he quickly transferred to a smaller, quicker vessel and followed her through the opening.
            -By the next morning, obviously Antony and Cleopatra had escaped, but the battle was over and Octavian was the clear victor.  However, Antony's infantry remained on land.
               -Antony's troops couldn't believe that Antony had fled, so they offered to surrender if they were given Octavian's word that they would be given fair treatment.  Octavian decided to take them up on their offer, and so all of Antony's troops were then incorporated into Octavian's forces and treated as if they had been in his army all along, and were even given spoils, payment, etc. (which pissed off some of the troops in Octavian's original officers, of course).
                   -Octavian then landed on the island of Samos (off the west coast of Asia Minor) while Antony and Cleopatra fled back to Alexandria.
   -As Octavian planned for his invasion of Egypt, he sent home thousands of soldiers who had completed their service.
      -However, these troops were dismayed when they returned home because they weren't given any money or land, as the city was once again bankrupt and couldn't afford to hook them up with anything.
         -Because of this, the soldiers began to riot, and even Agrippa couldn't calm them down when he returned to Rome.
            -Octavian then returned and promised payment and land once Antony was defeated, which actually worked in calming them down!
-Not everyone was dominated by (or happy with) Octavian.
   -Marcus Lepidus (the Younger), son of the triumvir Marcus Lepidus, started to make plans to assassinate Octavian once he returned to Rome. 
      -However, Octavian's powerful ally and political adviser Gaius Maecenas had been left in charge of managing Rome, and when he found out about Lepidus the Younger's conspiracy he acquired the names of all the co-conspirators and had them executed immediately.
-Meanwhile, Antony and Cleopatra were kind of fucked, stuck in Egypt and surrounded by Romans and Roman client states who had gone over to Octavian's side. 
   -Shit quickly grew worse for them, as four legions inside Egypt had defected to Octavian's side as Octavian himself marched through Syria to Egypt.
      -Also, Octavian was meeting very little resistance from the Egyptian troops who were supposed to defend Egypt, who probably knew something was up and a regime change was just around the corner.
-August 1, 31 BC- Antony sent out a naval fleet to attack Octavian's fleet, but Antony's fleet immediately surrendered when they reached Octavian's fleet.  After this, his cavalry and infantry began to desert him. 
   -Soon, Antony was all alone.  He marched back to the palace to blame Cleopatra for everything (and maybe kill her?), but Cleopatra had arranged for her servants to tell him that she was already dead.  Antony then went and tried to kill himself in his room by falling on his sword, but before he died the servants came to tell him that actually Cleopatra wasn't dead after all but had summoned him to her half-built mausoleum that had been under construction during this time. 
      -They cried together, and Antony drank one last goblet of wine before dying. 
      -As for Cleopatra, she didn't kill herself (at least not yet), but instead begged for her life and Octavian decided to let her live (probably just so he could parade her through Rome in a triumph). 
         -According to legend, Cleopatra then killed herself with a poisonous snake smuggled in by a servant.  Who knows though, but either way she definitely died in captivity during this time.
-Octavian then surveyed Alexandria, and famously visited the Tomb of Alexander the Great, which he adorned with flowers (and also placed a golden diadem on his Alexander's mummified head!).
   -The Roman Empire was now fully under Octavian's control!

The Donations of Alexandria

-41 BC- the Parthians began to attack the Roman Empire in Syria.  Their forces were led by the brilliant Parthian prince Pacorus I.
   -Before the Romans could react appropriately, the Parthians had already conquered both Judea and Syria and had quickly converted these former Roman provinces into new "independent" (puppet) kingdoms.
      -This happened because Marc Antony was too distracted with internal Roman politics, his own military preparations, AND an insane schedule of partying 24/7.
-38 BC- Pacorus I and his army were finally crushed near Antioch by Marc Antony's chief lieutenant, Publius Ventidius Bassus.  However, Ventidius failed to successfully mount a counterattack against a nearby Parthian stronghold on the Euphrates River.
   -Antony believed that it was possible Ventidius was taking bribes from the Parthians to hold back, so Antony fired him and took over control himself.
      -However, Antony himself turned back from the siege of the stronghold (lol) when winter came, using the bad weather as an excuse.
         -The Parthians then gave him a "gift" of some money in exchange for a truce.
-37 BC- Marc Antony was ready to attack the Parthians again.  Shit had calmed down among the triumvirs and he now had the alliance of Egypt as well to boost his troops.  It's estimated that he now had like 100,000 troops under his command!
   -He also had another kid with Cleopatra.
      -Cleopatra now had four kids:
         -Caesarion (from Julius Caesar)
         -Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene (twins from Marc Antony)
         -Ptolemy Philadelphus (from Marc Antony)
-Antony then reconquered Syria and also invaded Judea, Pontus, and maybe some other client states between the Roman Empire and the Parthian Empire.
   -He was sick of their weakness and inability to act as buffer states, so why not just annex them into the Roman Empire itself or at least install a puppet king that could be easily controlled?
-36 BC- Marc Antony finally orders a full invasion of Parthia!
   -However, this ended up being a complete shitshow.
      -Antony made the same mistakes as previous Romans (like Crassus, etc.) in not knowing the territory well and relying on local guides who were actually spies for the Parthian government.
         -Also, the supply lines and siege weapons were eventually destroyed in a surprise raid by the Parthian cavalry!
-Antony still hadn't managed to capture a major city, his siege weapons were destroyed, and his supply line was in ruins.  He was fucked.  He ordered a swift retreat back to Roman territory.
   -To make matters worse, the Armenians took advantage of the situation and joined with the Parthians against Rome.  As Antony traveled through Armenia back to Roman territory, the Armenians didn't offer any help or guidance.  It was also really cold in the Armenian mountains, and Antony's troops were rapidly dying.
      -Without fighting a single battle, Antony lost 25,000 men by the time he returned home.  He even considered suicide!
-Meanwhile, Octavian was doing quite well.  However, he faced a serious problem- with no threat to the empire in the west, he had no reason to have a bunch of legions.
   -His troops were ready to retire or be transferred over to be under Senate control.  So, in order to maintain control of the troops, he picked a fight with the inhabitants of Illyricum, a region loosely controlled by Rome along its coast but beyond that was infested with barbarians not exactly friendly to Rome.
      -Octavian used this as an excuse to pacify the region.
         -Octavian marched off with his troops and spent two years pacifying the hordes (on land) and crushing the pirates (in the eastern Adriatic Sea).  He pushed as far as the Danube River.
            -These wars greatly improved his reputation back in Rome.
-34 BC- While Octavian was fucking around in Illyricum, Marc Antony was licking his wounds in Alexandria with Cleopatra.
   -It's also worth noting that he was still married to Octavia (who was back in Rome) during this time, but I guess Antony DGAF.
      -This really pissed off Octavian because it made his sister look bad.  Also, Cleopatra was "Eastern" (i.e. NOT Roman).
      -In defense of Antony, however, why would he want to return anyway?  He was banging Cleopatra, partying all the time, and living a life of decadence in Alexandria, a badass city of the ancient world.  Rome was gross.
         -Octavian would actually come to really love how awesome Alexandria was when he eventually conquered it, and this would inspire him to remake Rome by using Alexandria as a model.
-34 BC- Antony hadn't forgotten about the Armenian betrayal.  He invaded Armenia, crushing their army, and captured their ruler, King Artavasdes II, taking him back to Alexandria as a prisoner and installing a new king as a puppet- his own son, Alexander Helios!
   -This made Rome uneasy...Alexander Helios was Antony's illegitimate son, and also Antony celebrated a triumph after conquering Armenia... in Alexandria, NOT Rome.  This had never happened before.
   -Antony then announced a new edict after his triumph during a massive banquet- the Donations of Alexandria!
      -During the banquet, Antony appeared dressed as Bacchus/Osiris and Cleopatra as Venus/Isis.  Caesarion was dressed as Horus (the son of Isis).  The donations:
         -Caesarion was proclaimed the TRUE son and heir of the GOD Julius Caesar (implying that Octavian was not).  Therefore, Caesarion was proclaimed King of Egypt in addition to King of Kings!
         -Alexander Helios was named King of Armenia, Media/Atropatene (modern-day Azerbaijan and northwest Iran), and Parthia.
         -Cleopatra Selene was named heir to the Roman province of Cyrenaica and the region of Libya (I guess?).
         -Ptolemy Philadelphus was heir to the provinces of Syria and Cilicia.
-Obviously, the Senate reacted by believing that Antony had lost his fucking marbles and was turning the Eastern Roman provinces into his own personal kingdom.
   -Octavian actually wasn't bothered by this on the inside; what really bothered him was the massive navy Antony was building, in addition to Caesarion being declared as Julius Caesar's "true heir".
-In reaction to the Donations of Alexandria, Octavian, Agrippa, and Gaius Maecenas (Octavian's chief political adviser) began secretly plotting to deal with Marc Antony.  How could they bait him into making the first move?
   -In front of the Senate, Octavian tried to talk as much shit on Antony as he could.
      -When word reached Antony that Octavian had been talking shit, Antony shot back at Octavian by saying that Octavian had forged his adoption papers, was a megalomaniac, etc. 
         -Antony wrote all of this shit in letters which were eventually read aloud in the Senate. 
            -Fun fact: Antony also claimed in his letters that Octavian performed sexual favors for Julius Caeser in order to be named his heir.  That must have been fun for Octavian to hear while they were listening to Antony's letters being read aloud in front of everyone!
-January 1, 33 BC- the triumvirate officially expires!  Octavian then publicly stated that he was no longer a triumvir and just wanted to move on with things.
   -Antony, however, refused to relinquish his position as triumvir and give up power! 
      -Because of this, Octavian was able to leverage the Senate against Antony.
         -Antony no longer had any legal status in terms of being a person of authority- he wasn't a consul, governor, or general...he was just some dude now.
            -However, Antony still had supporters in the Senate, and the two consuls during this time were actually both pro-Antony. 
               -Although the Senate was more or less against Antony, that didn't mean that they were pro-Octavian (after all, Octavian was now just some dude too haha).  So, Octavian arrived at the Senate with armed bodyguards and announced that, like Antony, he too wasn't going to give up power either! 
                  -Because of this, many senators (including both consuls) walked out of the meeting, packed up their shit, and fled Rome.  It was now obvious that Octavian's true nature had been revealed- he was a tyrant, not some goody two-shoes!
-Anyway, so Octavian found out and publicized some news (by breaking into the Temple of Vesta (a huge sacrilege!) and stealing Antony's will) that Antony, among other un-Roman things, wanted to buried in Alexandria after he died!
   -Octavian used this as an excuse to declare Marc Antony an enemy of the state.
-Antony knew that war was coming, especially all the senators whom had fled Rome arrived in Alexandria, and soon he used his massive navy to sail for an invasion of Greece!
   -His co-general was Cleopatra (lol) for some reason.
      -Antony and Cleopatra landed in Greece in late 32/early 31 BC.
         -They decided ot land in the Gulf of Ambracia, which was a weird choice.  By docking his fleet so far south instead of up north, Octavian was able to ferry his troops across Italy from Brundisium into Greece without any issues.
            -Maybe Antony didn't want to appear as an invader...OR maybe he wanted to keep a secure line back to Egypt in case he needed to escape.  It's unclear.
            -Antony's supply hub was at Methoni (SW corner of the Peloponnese). 
               -Agrippa struck first by quickly assaulting this port with his navy.  In fact, he struck so fast that Antony was unable to react, and then Octavian sent 50,000 troops across the Adriatic into Greece and then marched them south. 
                  -Regardless of whether he had prepared for it or not, Antony was now trapped in Greece!  Many high-ranking officials immediately began going over to Octavian's side...
                     -Antony would have to escape immediately or else he was fucked!