Wealth and Class

-At this point (c. 150 AD), the Romans had fundamentally changed and no longer pined for "the good ol' days" (the Republic)...the Roman character had fundamentally shifted!
   -During the Republic the Romans had been quite conservative- maintain a simple home and strong familial relationships, piousness, and a willingness to sacrifice oneself for the greater good of the public.
      -At this point, though, aristocratic Romans had grown lazy, self-indulgent, obsessed with petty gossip, ostentatious displays of wealth, and games.
      -The middle class had crumbled as farmers no longer had their own farms and had to either end working as tenants on aristocrats' huge estates or go try and find work in the city (where they would most likely be unemployed since they were farmers and didn't have the right skills for a city trade).
      -The military used to be made up of Roman citizen soldiers who came from farming backgrounds, but now it was made up almost entirely of professional soldiers from the provinces, as at this point being a soldier was one of the only ways the working class would have a shot at any kind of upwards mobility in society.
         -The only soldiers who were actually from Italia itself were usually either the poorest of the poor or aristocrats looking to go into politics later in life (and having served in the military would look quite nice on their resume).
   -How did this change happen?
      -Rome was now all-powerful (they controlled the Mediterranean!).
      -The empire had grown quite wealthy (presumably through taxes and conquest).'
      -New foreign philosophies and religions from Greece and the Near East had entered into the public consciousness.
   -The cracks in the empire were finally starting to show...
-One of the most important things to remember about the Roman Empire (at any point of its history) is that it had always had a serious problem with wealth inequality.
-Roman economic classes:
   -Slaves- how the empire was built!  Slaves were slaves just like in every other civilization in human history and also served as a status symbol for their masters' families.
      -The more slaves one owned, the better!  This was especially true with the super rich because they could afford to show off how many slaves they had by having a slave whose only job would be to perform some small, minor task for their masters... for example, while it would be possible for maybe one slave to perform 10 tasks, it was far better to have one slave designated to one task respectively in order to show off to the other wealthy families.
         -Slave-owners rarely went out in public without their slaves.  In cities, slaves were essentially treated like pets by their masters (which, as we know, can be either good or bad).  In the countryside, slaves were essentially treated like pack animals, working on farms which produced typical Roman cash crops like barley, wheat, millet, and grapes (which was the base of the average Roman diet). 
            -In fact, small farms eventually became increasingly rare over time as giant estates swallowed up more and more land, and many farmers or rural-based slaves ended up being tenant farmers on these huge farms.
               -It's worth noting that these mega-farms were one of the few exports that the empire produced that generated any serious income, as Rome was like an all-consuming black hole (in terms of consuming more than producing) that thrived off of war and conquest and not so much profitable trade.
                  -The typical Roman citizen was no longer a humble farmer (and soldier) with their own small plot of land- the vast majority had shifted towards working on someone else's land.  Most people during this time still would not travel very far from where they were born, and would most likely not ever visit the nearest provincial city (let alone Rome itself!).
            -While it was legal (I guess?) for slave-owners to mistreat their slaves, this was generally considered quite taboo by society (just like how we would look down on people who mistreat their pets in today's society).
      -Also, unlike a lot of other slave systems in other civilizations, slaves had the opportunity to either by their freedom or be set free (if they worked hard enough or established a strong bond with their masters). 
         -Freeing slaves actually became such an issue for the government that Augustus actually had to make laws which restricted how slaves could be freed (slaves could only be freed after the age of 30; masters could only free 100 (per 500) slaves at a time; etc.).
         -In fact, just like hoarding slaves was seen as a status symbol, so was freeing slaves!  Having the power to bestow freedom on another human being was seen as a major virtue during this time, so rich slave-owners often freed their slaves (I guess this would be like rich people giving to charity or engaging in philanthropic and/or humanitarian efforts nowadays?).
      -That being said, there was still an infinitesimally small minority of slaves that went on to achieve wealth and power, but this was rare. 
      -It's been estimated that the slave population made up about 1/3 of the entire population of the Roman Empire. 
      -Slaves were usually prisoners of war from Roman conquests, but Roman citizens also had the option if selling their own children into slavery if they were desperate enough (and/or just really shitty people).  Additionally, some people were born slaves if their mother was a slave, although this didn't happen that often because most slaves probably knew that it would be a shitty thing to do to their children.
         -Selling one's own children had become less and less common by the time of the emperors, but it would still happen occasionally!
         -Thus, slave traders grew quite rich from Rome's constant invasions of foreign lands, although the slave trade would reach its peak during the time of Trajan (due to the empire still expanding at that time).  After Trajan, the slave trade sharply declined overall due to the lack of newly-enslaved conquered people.
   -Freedmen- the practice of freeing a slave eventually became so common that an entirely new social class of freed slaves emerged.
      -While freedmen still weren't considered full citizens of the empire, they did still enjoy some privileges that were denied to regular slaves. 
         -However, it's worth noting that up until the reign of Claudius, freedmen were restricted in the kind of jobs they could have in society; Claudius would eventually strike down these restrictions and allow for freemen to have the opportunity to have any kind of job. 
            -Why did Claudius do this?  It's possible that he may have wanted to be nice to freedmen, but it's also likely that he wanted an excuse to be able to stock the government bureaucracy with a bunch of educated freedmen who would be efficient and competent without all of the drama and baggage that would come with appointing regular rich dudes for those same positions.  Smart!
               -Unfortunately, this also kind of backfired once regular citizens started to see how much power these freedmen were able to have, so they began to protest for reform.  This allowed for Domitian to take the opportunity to stock HIS government bureaucracy with equestrians. 
                  -Why did Domitian do this?  It's possible that he wanted to get in tight with the middle class (elites hated Domitian) whom had been marginalized by the senatorial class, but also he may have wanted to crack down on all of the corruption which had resulted from Claudius' freedmen bureaucrats amassing so much power so quickly in the government.
                     -Apparently, this seemed to work rather well for everyone overall, and the emperors after Domitian continued this trend of appointing equestrians to government positions for some time.
         -Of course, freedmen were also kind of looked down upon by Roman society as a whole, but this didn't stop freedmen from occasionally acquiring a considerable amount of wealth and power.  Also, freedmen's kids weren't considered to be slaves or freedmen, but
         -Freedmen were still obligated to have a patron-client relationship with their former masters, however.  This allowed for former masters to still retain their prestige that otherwise would have been lost when they freed their slaves- hoarding clients was also a status symbol as well for rich Roman families!
   -Poor people (vast majority of the common folk).
   -Lower middle-class- 10x smaller than the poors (in terms of size), but 10x richer.
      -However, the lower middle-class struggled just like the poor because they didn't qualify for state welfare!
   -Upper middle-class (equestrians)- lived comfortably, but nowhere near as rich as the senatorial class.
   -Aristocrats (senatorial class)- rich people.
   -Ludicrously rich- the richest of the rich (a handful of senators) who really called the shots in the empire (besides the emperor, of course).
   -The emperor- the richest person in the entire empire BY FAR (which also allowed him to have the most power).  This was what really allowed for the emperor to act with impunity, especially since it was money that controlled the legions.  As long as the legions were happy, the emperor could rest easy.
      -The emperor would become rich by either just straight-up taking whatever he wanted (usually off the books), but also would issue leases for imperial holdings and shit like that.
-Thus, most people living in the Roman Empire were stuck between the poor (no power) and the super rich (most of the power).  Even the richest of the rich weren't safe from the whims of the emperor.
   -For example, Nero one time just straight-up executed six rich dudes who owned like half of the province of Africa and then just confiscated their land for himself!
-While most rural-based Romans worked agricultural jobs, urban-based Romans worked a wide variety of jobs (just like how it's always been throughout human history) such as importers, exporters, wholesalers, bankers, cooks, retailers, innkeepers, masons, druggists, potters, tanners, jewelers, teachers, actors, etc.
   -However, unfortunately there massive amounts of city-dwellers who were actually unemployed and lived on the dole (typically free grain and games provided by the government) while working odd jobs.
      -An important note is that living on the dole still wasn't enough to support a family, as the grain provided was only enough for one person (usually the working male of the household).
      -Also, members of the lower-middle class didn't qualify for the dole, so life was hard for them too because they didn't have very much money but also didn't benefit from any government assistance!             -Even equestrians struggled sometimes! 
      -Thus, because everyone from the poor to the equestrians were struggling (to varying degrees, of course), something had to be done in order to retain some sort of balance or else the whole system would quickly fall apart.
         -Enter: the patron-client system!
            -During the days of the republic the patron-client system was mainly used by politicians hoping to gain political power and influence among the masses in exchange for votes, but obviously after Augustus took power and the republic collapsed there was no need for politicians to do this because emperors called all the shots after this. 
            -So, after the fall of the republic the patron-client system returned, but this version had evolved so that it acted as an alternate version of the dole.
               -Clients would visit their patrons in order to pay respect, and in return the patrons would give their clients a bit of money.  This in turn became the most common way for working class families to survive if they couldn't survive on the dole (or otherwise couldn't qualify for it to begin with).
                  -Truly desperate (or lazy haha) clients would have multiple patrons whom they would visit throughout the day, every day, in order to get a few coins that would allow them and their families to live on those small earnings for the day.

Antoninus the Dutiful

-138 AD- Antoninus Pius was now emperor of Rome.
   -Everyone seemed happy about this, including the Senate, as they had absolutely hated Hadrian.
      -Antoninus was well-liked by just about everyone.
   -Because of Antoninus' popularity, the histories reflect that this was arguably the reason for why iut was written that this was the zenith of the Roman Empire.
      -However, is this actually true?  The consensus nowadays seems to be that while Antoninus wasn't a bad emperor, he also wasn't exactly the best either, as he didn't really do anything truly amazing.
-Antoninus ended up living a long life, so Hadrian's plan of having Marcus Aurelius become a young emperor didn't pan out exactly as he had hoped.
   -Most scholars believe that Antoninus received the "Pius" after his name because of his push to have Hadrian (his father-in-law) deified (which the Senate was loathe to do but ultimately acquiesced), but there are other possible reasons for why as well.
-During this time the empire was quickly losing its "Roman" character, as more and more elites from the provinces entered the Senate and the imperial circle of advisers. 
   -This was especially the case during the reign of Hadrian, but Antoninus (himself born in Gaul) seemed to rely more on Italian men for his official appointments.
      -Thus, this marked the last gasp of Italian supremacy before the power shifted to the provincials.
      -Hadrian had been quite "progressive" in terms of innovation, expansion, etc.  However, Antoninus was clearly much more conservative and more concerned with maintenance and keeping shit running normally.
         -Didn't spend much money either unless it was for the public good, and was very strict with spending imperial funds, often spending his own money to help with public service projects (especially during emergencies and disasters).
         -Antoninus was also constantly asked by neighboring states to have Rome take them on as clients, but he refused on the basis that the empire was already maxed out and couldn't afford to take on any more at that time.  Unfortunately, this would actually cause big problems in the future, but worked fine during his own reign.
-Meanwhile in Britannia, the Romans were able to crush the rebel Brigantes and push further north into their territory.
   -The wall known as "the Antonine Wall" was then constructed 100 miles north of Hadrian's Wall.
-In North Africa, the Romans began to clash with natives in Mauretania, and Antoninus was unsuccessful in pacifying the situation.
   -The empire also started experiencing problems in other places as well- clashes along the Danube River with Germanic hordes, another minor rebellion in Judea, etc.
      -Despite this, Antoninus rarely got involved in war, and almost always opted for peaceful solutions.
         -However, it would be a mistake to see Antoninus as lazy or boring; he worked actively to micro-manage everything and was always working closely with those around him in order to minimize corruption.
         -Antoninus also passed legislation that gave slaves more rights (as up to this point they had had very few).
            -Pronounced that although slaves have a duty to their master, masters also have duties to their slaves. 
               -For example, if a master was cruel to his slaves, he could be ordered to sell them; likewise, if a master killed his slave, he could be arrested on charges of murder. 
            -However, it's important to note that Antoninus wasn't some revolutionary human rights activist; this was kind of the trend of the times and he also wanted to prevent future slave uprisings and shit.

Longing for Death

-134 AD- Hadrian was back in Italia, but his health was rapidly deteriorating.
   -Because of this, he began to seriously consider his successor.
   -Also, he apparently began to unravel mentally during this time.
      -Famous example is his feud with Apollodorus of Damascus, the famous Syrian-Greek genius engineer who had worked so brilliantly with Trajan.
         -The drama started when Hadrian had finished the completion of the Temple of Venus and Roma in Rome (from 121-135 AD, with additions later added by (future Roman emperor) Antoninus Pius).  Hadrian had designed it himself, and was super-proud of it.  However, he asked Apollodorus what he thought of it, but Apollodorus sent back an honest but brutal critique of it.
            -Allegedly they had disliked each other ever since the Dacian Wars, when Hadrian had tried to participate in the war discussions among Trajan, Apollodorus, and the other generals, and I guess everyone thought Hadrian was a noob.
               -Still though, Hadrian had apparently used Apollodorus to design anti-guerrilla war machines during the Bar Kokhba Revolt.
                  -Anyway, because of Apollodorus' critique, Hadrian had Apollodorus exiled and later executed!
                    -However, it's entirely possible that this was just made up and that Apollodorus had died of natural causes around this time, and Hadrian's enemies had used it as anti-Hadrian propaganda.
-136 AD- more or less completion of the Mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome.
-Before Hadrian's death, the only living male relative of Hadrian was Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator, husband of Hadrian's niece, Julia.
   -However, Hadrian had judged that Fuscus was unfit to be heir, as he was too petty and decadent ("a Nero in the making").
      -Originally, it had been expected that Fuscus was going to be chosen as heir, but this turned out to be not so; this especially pissed off Fuscus' grandfather-in-law, the politician Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus (also Hadrian's brother-in-law).
         -Servianus himself had also at one point been considered for heir to Hadrian.
-138 AD- Hadrian announced that he was adopting the consul Lucius Ceionius Commodus as heir- theories range wildly as to why he did this.
   -Lucius Commodus then changed his name to Lucius Aelius Caesar to reflect this.
   -Lucius Commodus was seen as an odd choice because he was always sick.
      -Was Hadrian playing 4D chess?  Some scholars think so.
         -It is likely that ultimately Hadrian was actually aiming for the grandson of Marcus Annius Verus, one his advisers (grandson had the same name, but he would be known in history as (future emperor) Marcus Aurelius!).
            -Hadrian saw this boy as remarkably intelligent, mature, and studious.
               -Hadrian also had it arranged that Marcus was engaged to Lucius Caesar's daughter immediately after naming Lucius heir.
                  -Lucius did also have a son, but he was too  young, so it made sense that Hadrian was expecting the sickly Lucius to croak before he came of age, setting up Marcus as the next in line by default.  For now, though, Marcus was still too young to be adopted as Hadrian's heir.
-Hadrian naming Lucius as heir was too much for Servianus and Fuscus!
   -They immediately began to conspire to overthrow Hadrian and take power for themselves. 
      -Of course, Hadrian quickly found out about this and had Fuscus and Servianus executed.
         -According to legend, before dying Servianus cursed Hadrian by saying something like- "May you long for death, but be unable to die!"
   -At this point, it's unclear as to what exactly went down- did Hadrian have Servianus, Fuscus, and possibly others (including his own wife, Sabina!) executed on trumped-up charges?
      -It's possible that Hadrian was getting paranoid, but it's also possible that the Senate was demonizing him.
-Meanwhile, Lucius died on New Year's Day, 138 AD, after returning from his governorship in Pannonia Superior. 
   -Quickly, Hadrian named the senator Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus as heir (future emperor Antoninus Pius).
      -Antoninus was born in 86 AD near Rome.
         -Grandson (and son) of a consul who had served under Domitian and was a former military commander.
            -Family (Aurelius) had originally come from southern Gaul, but had relocated to Italy at some point.
            -Father had died early on, so Antoninus was adopted by his maternal grandfather's clan (hence, why his name is so long).  Antoninus was well-connected (e.g. he was close friends with Pliny the Younger).
            -Early in his life he married Annia Galeria Faustina, daughter of an aristocratic family and granddaughter of Marcus Annius Verus.
               -Because of this, Antoninus found himself as a courtier of Hadrian's when Hadrian assumed power.
                 -Hadrian liked Antoninus and awarded him with various high offices and shit.
   -It's clear at this point that Hadrian had seriously been considering Marcus as heir becuase he allowed for Antoninus to be his heir on the sole condition that Antoninus adopt both Marcus AND Lucius Ceionius Commodus (son of Lucius Caesar). 
      -Antoninus acccepted, and he changed his name to Titus Aelius Caesar Antoninus.
-July 10, 138 AD- Hadrian finally croaks, and Antoninus becomes the next emperor!
   -Hadrian had developed congestive heart failure, which was extremely painful.  This resulted in Hadrian trying (and failing) to kill himself on multiple occasions!  So maybe Servianus' (alleged) curse turned out to come true!

May His Bones be Crushed

-125 AD- Hadrian returns to Rome after touring the empire.
   -Reception of Hadrian by the citizens of Rome was mixed.  The provincials had loved him, however.
   -While he kept the citizens of Rome happy with games and urban renewal projects, many felt that he was not a "true" Roman.
      -Hadrian loved hunting, astrology, poetry, and everything Greek.  He was also from Hispania and extremely gay.  Additionally, he rocked a full beard, which was not fashionable in Rome at this time.
         -He also conducted business from his villa in Tibur (modern-day Tivoli, Lazio) rather than the Palatine Hill.
-127 AD- Hadrian decided to tour the Italian peninsula, moderating and ordering renovations and shit.
   -The province of Italia had been divided into 17 districts which kind of administrated themselves, but Hadrian decided to instead divide the peninsula into four zones, each run by an imperial procurator. 
      -This really pissed off Italians- they felt like Hadrian was just turning Italia into just another province of the empire, diminishing its status of supremacy.
   -During this time he also got sick for months.
-128 AD- traveled to North Africa to inspect the troops, order more fortifications built, etc.
   -On his way back to Rome he stopped by Greece, and once again participated in the Eleusinian Mysteries.
      -While in Greece, he pushed for the creation of a Pan-Hellenic league that would elevate Greece from a backwater into a cultural powerhouse again.  Especially, he wanted to unite Sparta and Athens, who famously never got along well together.
         -Greece had always been divided politically due to its tendency to develop city-states instead of kingdoms or empires. 
         -Of course, Greece still wouldn't have any real power, they would just be a major cultural hub.
         -Unfortunately, these plans fell through after Hadrian left.
-129 AD- sailed into Anatolia, where he met with Eastern client-kings of Rome who served as buffers between the Roman Empire and the "uncivilized lands" outside of its domain and influence.
   -This pissed off the Senate- Rome was powerful enough so that it did not need to pay its allies anymore!  You either joined Rome or you were an enemy!
      -Hadrian DGAF, of course.
-130 AD- on his way to Aegyptus, Hadrian stopped by Jerusalem.
   -During the Jewish revolts, the province had fallen into decline.
      -It had been significantly depopulated, the Temple of Solomon had been destroyed, entire cities had been razed, etc.
         -The Jewish high priests also no longer had any political authority.
   -Hadrian's plan to improve Judea was to erase its Jewish culture and Judaism itself and assimilate the province into a Hellenistic colony.
      -Ordered Jerusalem to be rebuilt, and he then named renamed it "Aelia Capitolina".
         -The name comes from Hadrian's full name (Publius Aelius Hadrianus) and Jupiter Capitolinus, the temple to Jupiter built on the Capitoline Hill back in Rome.
            -Hadrian also built a temple to Jupiter on top of the site of the Temple of Solomon (AKA The Second Temple).  Of course, this would thoroughly enrage the Jews and would spark another Jewish revolt in 132 AD.
-Quick note about Hadrian's sexuality and his relationship with Antinous.
   -The ancient Romans didn't really have a concept of "gay".  They just thought there were "tops" and "bottoms", and being a top was "good" (masculine) and being a bottom was "bad" (feminine).  It seems like Hadrian may have been down for both, but he had zero attraction to women and was instead in a relationship with Antinous, the teenage boy whom he had met in the province of Bithynia and loved to travel with.  They also lived together as well at Hadrian's villa.
      -Also, the Romans, like the Greeks, had a cultural concept of younger boys hooking up with older men in a sort of "patron-client" relationship.
   -Antinous was born around 111 AD in Bithynia and was by all accounts and extremely beautiful young man.
      -Around 124 AD he was enrolled in an imperial page program which trained young men to be couriers, valets, servants, etc.
         -After serving Hadrian when the emperor was in Bithynia, Hadrian had Antinous move to his personal villa in Tibur in 125 AD.  After this, wherever Hadrian went, Antinous was close by.
-Anyway, in 130 AD Hadrian went to Aegyptus to tour the province.
   -On the way to Memphis, Hadrian stopped in the city of Hermopolis to check out a temple built by Ramses II.
      -We still don't know exactly what happened, but during this time Antinous mysteriously died.  There are a bunch of theories of course as to what went down- it was a swimming accident; he committed suicide; he was despairing over being stuck as Hadrian's sex slave; he was killed in a ritual sacrifice; etc.
         -Anyway, regardless of what happened Hadrian seemed really sad so he founded a new cult to worship Antinous as a god, and Hadrian had a number of statues and monuments built in his honor throughout the empire.
            -The cult spread quickly in the East; cities realized that an easy way to curry favor with Hadrian was to give money and influence to the cult.
               -In fact, the cult became so popular in the East that its only competition (as far as mystery cults went) was a strange new cult that revolved around the teachings and worship of a mysterious man who had been named Jesus Christ.
            -The Senate was outraged at Hadrian's actions regarding the deification of Antinous.
               -Antinous had not been of imperial blood, he was just some boy lover of Hadrian's! 
                  -Additionally, Hadrian had not sought the permission of the Senate to do this, which up to this point had always been the precedent. 
            -Hadrian then founded a new city in Aegyptus, Antinopolis (near modern-day Mallawi, Minya), in Antinous' honor, near the site where he had died.  Hadrian then headed to Alexandria before returning to Greece.
-132 AD- Hadrian was in Athens when he received news of a new Jewish revolt in Judea.
   -The revolt had not been spontaneous; it had most likely been in the works right after Hadrian left Judea.
      -The Jews had constructed a series of cave tunnels and underground networks, and had also gotten the local blacksmiths to forge shitty weapons and armor for the local Roman garrisons. 
         -When this equipment was rejected by the local legions, the Jews would rework it into high-quality equipment for their own armies instead of throwing it out.  Thus, the Roman troops were completely shocked when they realized how well-armed the Jewish rebels were.
   -The revolt was led by a dude named Simon Bar Kokhba (most-likely born as Bar Koseva or Ben Koseva or something like that) who had been pronounced by at least one leading sage as "the Messiah" ("Bar Kokhba" means "Son of a Star" in Aramaic and is based off the same star prophecy found in Numbers 24 in the Old Testament).
      -The local governor , Tineius Rufus, found his two legions quickly overwhelmed by the massive uprising, and immediately ordered for reinforcements to be sent in from Syria and Aegyptus. 
         -However, these reinforcements were not properly prepared for the Jewish style of guerrilla warfare, and the legion from Aegyptus was completely annihilated!
            -With these victories, Simon Bar Kokhba declared Judea's independence from Rome! 
               -They even began issuing their own coins and laws and shit.
               -Realizing the gravity of the situation, Hadrian summoned Sextus Julius Severus, the governor of Britannia and a genius general, to Judea to help lead the legions there in order to quell the rebellion.  He soon arrived in Judea with reinforcements.
                  -Hadrian and Severus' plan was to use brute force and overwhelming numbers to bring down the rebellion. 
                     -It was a brutal grind, but the rebellion was finally squashed by 135 AD.  It took 12 legions and the destruction of approximately 50 cities and 1000 towns and villages to finally pacify the region. 
                         -While the Romans suffered heavy casualties, it is estimated that approximately 600,000 Jews were killed during this time.
                            -Many scholars mark this as the true beginning of the Jewish diaspora. 
                               -This example of the brutal nature of how Rome pacified rebellious regions is why Tacitus famously quoted a Briton chieftain who said "the Romans make a desert, and they call it 'peace'."
   -Thus, because Judea had been so depopulated as a result of Jews either fleeing the province or being exterminated, Hadrian decided to repopulate the province with Greco-Romans.
      -The Jews were thus banned from entering Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem).  Also banned was the practice of circumcision, the Hebrew calendar, and Jewish laws based on the Torah.
         -Tons of sacred scrolls were burned at the Temple of Jupiter (previously the Second Temple), where Hadrian installed statues of both Jupiter AND himself.
            -For many years after this, Jewish scholars would be routinely executed.
            -The province was then combined with province of Syria and was renamed Syria Palestina.
               -"Palestina" (Palestine) comes from the name for the ancient region of Philistia, the land of the Philistines, who were eventually conquered by the Israelites.
-The Bar Kokhba Revolt obviously had a huge effect on Jewish history, as this region would not be a center for Jewish life and culture for almost 2000 years!!
   -Thus, Hadrian has been forever despised as one of the most hated people in Jewish history, with his name usually followed by "may his bones be crushed!"

Hadrian's Walls

-117 AD- anyway, so Hadrian was now emperor of Rome.
   -During this time there was starting to be cracks in the empire.
      -Rebellion in Dacia (the Dacian Wars), northern Britannia, and Judea. 
-The Second Judean-Roman War (AKA the Kitos War; 115-117 AD) was especially brutal.
   -During the first Jewish-Roman War (AKA the Great Revolt; 66-73 AD) many Jews fled the kingdom because the Romans were killing and/or enslaving everyone.
      -Many of these Jews fled into different parts of the Roman empire, but they refused to assimilate into these new societies they found themselves living in.
         -The Jews came to be increasingly feared and marginalized in their societies. 
         -Because this situation, it finally reached a head in 117 AD when a dude named Lukuas (AKA Andreas) started a rebellion in the province of Crete and Cyrenaica in 115 AD by proclaiming himself "King of the Jews" and declaring war on the Roman Empire.
            -During his rebellion he led his followers to destroy many Roman temples and government buildings, and executed all of the non-Jews they could find.  His revolt then spread to Aegyptus, Cyprus, and Mesopotamia. 
               -Additionally, part of Alexandria in Aegyptus was burned to the ground.
               -In Cyprus, up to 200,000 non-Jews were slaughtered.
            -During this time Trajan was emperor; he ended up dispatching the Praetorian prefect Marcius Turbo to quell the rebellion, and while this was relatively easy in Cyprus, it wasn't until after Trajan died that he was able to finally get Aegyptus under control.
               -Lukuas then fled to the city of Lod (AKA "Lydda" in Greek) in Judea, where he and his rebels were besieged by a Roman army led by Lucius Quietus (governor of Judea), who was ultimately successful in finally quelling the rebellion and executing Lukuas and his rebel army. 
                  -After this, Quietus was actually dismissed as prefect because Hadrian thought he was getting too powerful.
   -Because the situation was getting so out of control in the East, Hadrian decided to double down in provinces like Judea and give up on trying to hold Mesopotamia, which he saw as a waste of resources when the other neighboring provinces were so unstable.
      -As for Cyrenaica, the province was so depopulated that Hadrian had to set up a recolonization project later, and Jewish immigrants were also permanently banned from Cyprus.
-Because of his decision to withdraw Roman forces from the provinces of Mesopotamia, Hadrian also allowed for Parthamaspates, the puppet ruler (who had been installed by Trajan) of Parthia, to be driven off by Sanatruces II, who was then enthroned as the rightful king of Parthia around 117 AD.
   -During this time Hadrian also recalled the legions in Germania back over to the Roman side of the Danube River.
      -All of these withdrawals really pissed off the Senate, and it could be argued that there was a religious aspect to this outrage as well- the Romans worshiped Terminus, the god of boundaries, and believed in the sacredness of boundary markers. 
         -So, to intentionally abandon these boundary markers may have been seen as disgraceful to the gods.
-118 AD- Hadrian had four ex-consuls killed (allegedly).
   -These ex-consuls were: Cornelius Palma (former governor of Syria); Publius Celsus (former member of Trajan's inner circle who was kicked out on suspicion of treason); Lucius Quietus; Avidius Nigrinus (governor of Dacia).
   -It is believed that this was based on intelligence provided by the prefect Attianus, who claimed that these ex-consuls were conspiring to murder Hadrian and stage a coup.
      -They were executed without a trial and their deaths shocked the elites.  To make matters worse, either Hadrian or Attianus had forced the Senate to sign off on these executions/murders, making them accomplices. 
         -Everyone began to fear that Hadrian was turning into another Domitian; no one believed in these trumped-up charges.  Hadrian was now scorned in Rome by his fellow elites.
   -Anyway, Hadrian knew that everyone now hated him and that this put him at risk of fomenting a legit conspiracy against him, so he began to make a serious effort to try and salvage his reputation.
      -He claimed that he had nothing to do with the murders and blamed everything on Attianus, and had Attianus removed as prefect.
         -He also encouraged everyone to come visit him in person in the palace and began to make himself as visible as possible in public.
-Hadrian also implemented some financial reforms, such as fines, monetary penalties, etc.
   -Any money going to the government now went directly into the imperial treasury (and not into imperial or senatorial accounts).  He also cancelled all debts involving loans taken out in the past 15 years.  He even went so far as to have all the records publicly burned!  Of course, the people loved him for this.
-However, despite Hadrian's reforms and cleaned-up image, he never truly won over the Senate, but they still did manage to trust him to an extent. 
   -Hadrian also kicked off his reign with a ton of games- gladiatorial matches, chariot races, wild animal-hunting spectacles, etc.
-Hadrian also traveled more than any other emperor had or would in the history of the empire. 
   -Spent roughly half his reign traveling.  He also spent a lot of time in his private villa outside Rome, and this trend would continue as future emperors would eventually tend to spend less and less time in the city of Rome itself.
-121 AD- Hadrian's first grand tour of the western half of the empire.
   -The legions in Germania had kind of fallen by the wayside in terms of of attention since most of the action was taking place in the East, so Hadrian wanted to to shift some of the focus back onto these legions.  He also wanted to make additional updates to the Limes Germanicus.  However, it's important to note that Hadrian's priority was defense; he wasn't interested in expanding across the Rhine.
      -Often walked alongside the legions and hung out with them; he was NEVER carried in a litter.  He also often wore simple clothes and stayed in spartan lodgings. 
         -This really boosted troop morale. 
-122 AD- Hadrian visits Britannia.
   -There had been a bunch of uprisings and revolts after Trajan died in 117 AD, so Hadrian's solution was to build a giant-ass 70-mile wall in the north.  However, the purpose of the wall was not meant to "wall off" the barbarians from Roman territory, but rather to cut in half the territory of the Brigantes (Celtic tribe of northern Britannia).
      -This allowed for the Romans to manage the territory much more easily and establish influence among the locals as towns would inevitably spring up around the garrisons. 
-122-123 AD- Hadrian went to Gaul and Iberia and chilled there for awhile.
-Spring 123 AD- went south to the provinces of Mauretania Tingitana and Mauretania Caesariensis. 
   -There had been a rebellion by some of the local Mauri (the Roman word for the Berbers of the province of Mauretania) and Hadrian set up a network of forts and ditches ("limes") to fortify the provinces.
   -Hadrian then went east to the city of Cyrene in the province of Crete and Cyrenaica (and then maybe went to Alexandria, but this is unclear).  Also, the city of Cyrene had recently been pretty fucked up by the Jewish revolts, so while he was there Hadrian pledged to rebuild the city.
-Summer 123 AD- Hadrian arrives in the city of Antioch (modern-day Antakya, Turkey) in Syria.  He was there because he wanted to meet with Osroes I (current king of Parthia), as the Parthians were once again becoming increasingly belligerent.
   -Through diplomacy they were able to work out a deal- the Euphrates River would serve as the border between Parthia and Rome. 
   -Hadrian then toured through the rest of Asia Minor.
      -During this time in Asia Minor, during his stop in the city of Claudiopulus (modern-day Bolu, Turkey) in the province of Bithynia and Pontus, Hadrian apparently met a beautiful male youth named Antinous (when and where they met exactly is still unknown, however) who would quickly become his lover and would travel with Hadrian and shit during his travels.
-Hadrian's travels and stops at every major city were a big deal because no emperor had ever really done that before.  Additionally, pretty much every city he stopped at was improved soon after he left.
-Sometime between 123-124 AD, Hadrian went to Athens.
   -He had really wanted to get there in time in order to participate in the Eleusinian Mysteries, a mystical initiation rite into the Greek cult of Demeter and Persephone based out of the city of Eleusis (approximately 10 miles NW of Athens).
      -Highly possible that these rites involved psychedelic drugs (including possibly ergot, shrooms, opioids, or even DMT!).
         -Augustus himself had even participated back in the day.
   -During his time in Athens, Hadrian had made plans to transform the city into a cultural powerhouse once again, as he really loved Greek culture and hated to see that it had kind of become a backwater.
      -While the Athenians appreciated Hadrian's good will, they were also annoyed at the idea of Rome "making Athens great again".
-125 AD- Hadrian had been out of Rome for four years at this point, so he knew it was time to return home (even though he probably just wanted to stay in Athens forever).
   -However, in order to still enjoy Greek culture back home, Hadrian ordered the construction of the Villa Adriana ("Hadrian's Villa" in English) outside of the town of Tibur (modern-day Tivoli, Italy), located approximately 20 miles outside of Rome, which he styled to his liking.
   -After passing through Sicily, Hadrian finally arrived in Rome.
      -There, he surveyed a bunch of the construction that he had ordered to be built or remodeled, including the newly-renovated Pantheon!

The Greekling

-117 AD- Trajan's dead, so there was much anxiety about who would be his heir.
   -While Trajan's wife, Pompeia Plotina, had supported a dude named Publius Aelius Hadrianus (Trajan's only living male relative), but Trajan had always been uncertain as to if this was a good choice. 
      -The rumor is that when Trajan died, Plotina somehow manipulated the situation so that Hadrian was named heir.
         -Why would Plotina do this?
            -First, by having Hadrian be named emperor, Plotina would be able to retain her power.
            -Also provided a seamless tradition of power and hopefully would prevent a civil war.
            -Hadrian was also a good choice.  He wasn't too old or too young (he was 41 at this time), had lots of military and administrative experience (as governor of Pannonia Inferior).  Additionally, he was a legitimate relative of Trajan!
-Hadrian was born in 76 AD possibly in either Italica, Hispania Baetica (outside of modern-day Seville, Andalusia) or Rome; the exact details of his birth and lineage are unclear.
   -Family were elite Romans who had lived in Italica for a long time; father was a senator (and later praetor) but he died when Hadrian was 10. 
      -Thus, Hadrian came under the care of Trajan, his relative and a rising star in Roman politics at this time. 
         -Also came under the care of another dude, Publius Acilius Attianus, another powerful Roman aristocrat and official from Hispania.
    -Growing up, Hadrian was well-educated, taking an especially strong interest in everything Greek.  In fact, he liked Greek shit so much that he acquired the nickname "Graeculus" ("the Greekling").  This would also have a huge influence on his reign as emperor, too.
   -Moved to Rome with Trajan when he was 14.  At this time, Trajan was serving as consul under Domitian.
   -Thanks to Trajan, Hadrian eventually landed three successive military tribuneships, beginning in Moesia, then Pannonia, and finally Germania Superior.
      -He was a very charismatic officer and competent leader.
      -Although he is now seen as a pacifist emperor, he actually loved the military and military culture, and because of this the military loved him.
   -Was serving as tribune in Germania Superior when Trajan was enthroned as emperor. 
   -While Hadrian was possibly an obvious choice for heir, Trajan was skeptical of his worthiness.
      -It's also possible that Hadrian had benefited from Trajan's power only because Pompeia liked him, and not Trajan himself.
      -Hadrian was also mocked by senators in Rome due to his foreign accent and "barbarian" manners and shit.
   -Hadrian eventually married Trajan's niece's daughter, Vibia Sabina, in 100 AD.
      -While this was a solid political marriage, it was most certainly not a romantic one.  Hadrian and Sabina didn't get along at all, and it also didn't help that Hadrian was gay.
   -Anyway, Hadrian continued to serve under Trajan, accompanying him on both Dacian Wars, but it's unclear as to what exactly Hadrian was doing there.
      -Was given a praetorship in 106 AD and command over a legion in Germania.
      -Was given a praetorship in 107 AD and command over a legion in Pannonia.
      -Made suffect consul in 108 AD, but this was considered to be kind of rude (and further evidence that Trajan didn't really like Hadrian).
   -Hadrian's generally upward movement in society was good for him, but it was just kind of weird because Trajan was ambiguous about what the point of all of it was.  It's also unclear as to what Hadrian made of it, too.
   -After finishing his consulship, Hadrian disappeared off the historical record for a few years before popping up again with his arrival in Athens in 112 AD.
      -Hadrian got so immersed in Athenian life and culture during this time that he eventually was given Athenian citizenship!  He even went on to serve as eponymous archon (chief magistrate) of the city!
         -Left Athens in 114 AD to join Trajan and serve in his entourage during Trajan's Parthian campaign. 
   -117 AD- Hadrian was appointed governor of Syria.
      -This was actually a legitimately powerful position, and demonstrated that Trajan was finally starting to take Hadrian seriously.
   -When Hadrian found out that Trajan had (allegedly) named him as heir, he announced the news  to his legions and there was much rejoicing. 
      -Thus, the Senate acquiesced and confirmed Hadrian as the new emperor.
-Anyway, now that Hadrian was emperor, he knew that he couldn't yet rest on his laurels (so to speak), as he knew that there were powerful political enemies who would test the limits of his power, so he had to act fast!

Optimus Trajan

-When Trajan returned from Dacia, he built a bunch of new stuff including triumphs, a forum, baths, and a new harbor built in 113 AD.
   -Also built a new highway from Beneventum (modern-day Benevento, Campania) to Brundisium (modern-day Brindisi, Apulia) because the Appian Way (which led from Rome to Brundisium through Beneventum) was such a clusterfuck.
      -Other roads were built upon, improved, and expanded as well, including bridges designed by the genius Apollodorus.
         -Unfortunately in later centuries these roads and bridges would allow for the barbarian hordes to travel throughout the empire with startling speed...
-A lot of what we know about Trajan comes from his colleague, the historian Pliny the Younger.
   -Born in 61 AD to an Equestrian family.  Father died when he was young.
   -Educated by Lucius Verginius Rufus (remember him?  He was the governor of Germania Superior during the end of Nero's reign and had stayed loyal to Nero and crushed Gaius Julius Vindex's rebellion in Gaul in 68 AD, and had also been so popular with his troops that they had been ready to straight-up declare him princeps!  Of course, Verginius had refused to betray Nero).
   -Pliny the Younger eventually moved to Rome and continued to be educated, but this time by his famous uncle, the naturalist (and writer, philosopher, former military commander, and personal friend of Vespasian) Pliny the Elder!
      -Unfortunately, Pliny the Elder was killed in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD (died in Stabiae (modern-day Castellammare di Stabia, Campania)).
         -Left all of his property and wealth to Pliny the Younger, who was also to be posthumously adopted as his son.
   -Thus, Pliny the Younger quickly moved up the cursus honorum, and eventually became a well-respected lawyer, senator, and administrator.
      -During this time he also be came good friends with the historians Tacitus and Suetonius, as well as Trajan.
         -He was so trusted by Trajan that in 110 AD, Trajan sent Pliny to go manage the province of Bithynia, which was falling apart due to shitty administration.
            -It took Pliny two years to clean up the situation, but during this time Pliny and Trajan sent each other letters which we still have today and gives us valuable insight as to how the empire managed all of its provinces, as well as Trajan's philosophy of how shit should be run (based on common sense, tradition, and Trajan's own intuition/judgement).
               -One interesting tidbit with these letters involved discussion of what to do about the mysterious new cult of Christianity, which was quickly spreading throughout the eastern half of the empire. 
                  -Governors across the empire were confused about what to do with Christians.  Christians refused to worship the Roman gods or accept the divinity of the Roman emperors, and many governors feared that the cult would foment eventually foment civil unrest wherever it had a significant presence.
                     -There was a greater fear that the cult would eventually encourage rebellion.  Obviously, it was illegal in the empire to form independent political parties or movements.
                        -However, Trajan encouraged caution about persecuting alleged Christians, especially because using paid informants or rumors would just make the governors more tyrannical and create more political unrest, so he made sure to stress that alleged Christians should be given a fair trial, but always be given the chance to renounce their faith.  However, if they refuse to renounce Christianity, they must be punished! 
                        -The problem of what to do with Christians would be a pain in the ass for administrators for the next 200 years (until Constantine converts!)
-Anyway, Trajan was thus far proving to be a badass ruler, and was given the honorific title "Optimus" ("the Best").
-110 AD- Meanwhile, more drama was going down in Armenia.
   -As we may remember, Rome and Parthia shared hegemony over the kingdom.  The Parthians got to choose the Armenian king, but Rome had veto power.
      -Anyway, when King Sanatruk (AKA Sanatruces) of Armenia died in 110 AD, Parthia chose a dude named Axidares (AKA Ashkadar/Exedares/Exedates), the son of Pacorus II (a former Parthian king) and nephew of Osroes I (the Parthian king at this time), to replace him.  However, Parthia had not consulted Rome about this and just had Axidares enthroned without Rome's consent.
         -While Rome actually had no problem with Axidares, they were pissed off that Parthia hadn't consulted them about this, considering them to be a sign of grave disrespect (and, by extension, a possible invitation to war).  So, hoping to avoid war with Rome, Osroes I had Axidares deposed and replaced by Axidares' brother, Parthamasiris (AKA Partamasia / Parthomasiris).
            -It probably also didn't hurt that Osroes I had considered Axidares to be a shitty ruler, anyway.
            -Anyway, because the Romans were pissed about this whole situation, Trajan declared war on Parthia! 
               -Of course, it's also possible that Trajan just wanted an excuse to pick a fight with Parthia :)
-113 AD- Trajan invaded Armenia, and by the following year the Romans had crushed the Armenian defenses and had Parthamasiris dethroned (and possibly executed).
   -Armenia was then officially annexed as a Roman province.
   -Of course, Trajan didn't just stop here, and continued to wage war against the Parthians.
-115 AD- Trajan invades Mesopotamia (Parthian territory).
   -This was also a great time for Rome to invade, as Parthia was kind of fucked up during this part of its history due to political infighting and just not having their shit together.
-116 AD- Mesopotamia was officially annexed as a new Roman province.
   -One of the most important cities conquered by Rome during this time was the ancient city of Babylon (modern-day Hillah, Iraq).
   -The Romans then sailed along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, eventually caputring the Parthian capital Ctesiphon (outside of modern-day Baghdad, Iraq).
   -The Romans eventually made it so far downriver that they soon arrived at the Persian Gulf, where Trajan famously stated that he was saddened because he wouldn't be able to see the Romans march into India (like Alexander the Great) because he was too old that point. 
      -All of this was annexed into the Roman Empire. 
      -Osroes I was then dethroned and replaced by his son, Parthamaspates, as a puppet king.
         -It seems likely that Trajan's ultimate goal was to just straight-up conquer the entire Parthian Empire and annex it into the Roman Empire!
-Of course, the Parthian Empire was pretty big, so even though the Romans had taken over Ctesiphon the Parthians still hadn't given up!
   -An army was raised by Mithridates IV (brother of Osroes I) and his son Sanatruces II, and they began launching attacks against the Romans, although they were ultimately defeated.
   -Also, a serious revolt in Judea was also getting worse, so Trajan decided to retreat and consolidate his forces.
   -Unfortunately for Trajan, he was getting old and it was hot as fuck in Mesopotamia, so he suffered from heat stroke.  Realizing that he would probably die if he continued to personally wage war in Mesopotamia, he decided to have the legions stay and try and pacify Mesopotamia while he himself returned to Rome to recover.
      -However, the long trek had take a serious toll on Trajan's health, not to mention the stress of running the empire and the seemingly endless military campaigns, and so he died in the city of Selinus, Cilicia (modern-day Gazipaşa, Antalya in south-central Turkey) :(
 

The Dacian Wars

-98 AD- Trajan was now princeps!
   -One of the greatest Roman emperors of all time!
   -Spent his first year in office travelling around the Roman frontiers of the Rhine and Danube rivers.
      -Eventually arrived in the province of Moesia (next to the kingdom of Dacia) and concluded that the Dacians were obviously preparing for war with Rome.
         -Domitian had sent a bunch of money to Decebalus (king of Dacia) in exchange for Dacia to become a client kingdom of Rome, but Domitian had expected Decebalus to use this money to build up their fortifications and protect themselves neighboring barbarian hordes.  However, it was clear that the Dacians were instead using these funds to build up their fortifications to protect themselves from Rome instead!
-99 AD- Trajan finally arrived in Rome and held a triumph to celebrate his enthronement.
   -Surprisingly entered the city on foot (as opposed to a horse or chariot) and greeted the common folk personally on his way into the city.
   -Promised the Senate that he would continue Nerva's policy of "no treason trials". 
      -Interestingly enough, the Senate actually hated Trajan initially because he was a provincial from Hispania (in addition to being someone who had replaced Nerva without their own say in the matter), but after meeting him they immediately grew to like him.
      -Trajan soon announced that he was going back to the old Augustine model of referring to himself as "princeps" ("first", i.e. "first among equals"), which I guess emperors in the past hadn't been doing.
   -Trajan also freed many of the remaining aristocratic political personas who had been held prisoner by Domitian, and returned lots of their confiscated property.
   -Also, Trajan was kind of a libertarian- he had no interest in running an autocratic state, and envisioned all of the provinces governing themselves autonomously, with the emperor or Senate only issuing orders when it was absolutely necessary. 
      -He also didn't have time to micromanage the provinces anyway, as he was busy preparing for the war with Dacia!
      -Dismantled Domitian's central executive branch that managed the empire.
-Trajan then raised two legions and reorganized where the troops were stationed.
   -Also improved the road networks of Moesia in order to minimized fuck-ups involving supply routes.
      -Regarding the Dacian Wars, Trajan became legendary not because of his battle plans (which were fine), but because of his logistical planning (which was genius).
         -One of the key Roman engineers during this time was a genius dude named Apollodorus of Damascus, one of the greatest engineers/architects in all of history!
            -Apollodorus was Trajan's chief architect for everything.
   -One Trajan felt that he had prepared enough, he received the Senate's blessing (a formality) and decided to move forward with the war with Dacia.
-101 AD- in March, Trajan personally led the legions into Dacia.
   -Once again, a battle was fought near Tapae, and the Dacians actually put up a really good fight, with the Romans experiencing a surprisingly high number of casualties.
      -Technically the Romans won because the Dacians fled after a storm came, but this was definitely a Pyrrhic victory for Trajan.
         -Winter was also on the way, so Trajan quickly made the decision to retreat back into Moesia to regroup and make additional plans.
   -However, when winter came, the Danube River froze and Decebalus decided to launch an offensive on Moesia!
      -Unfortunately for him, the Danube River hadn't quite frozen as much as he'd thought, and he lost a bunch of troops due to thin ice and shit.
         -Demoralied, they launched a shitty attack on Moesia and were easily repelled by the Roman defenses.
-102 AD- Trajan decided to invade Dacia again in the spring, but this time Decebalus decided to surrender and sue for peace.
   -It was obvious to Trajan that the problem wasn't Dacia's independence, but rather it was Decebalus' belligerence and an apparent lack of honor.  So, he accepted Decebalus' surrender, but imposed far harsher penalties on Dacia.
      -Dacia had to give part of its territory to Rome and also had to tear down their fortifications and shit that had been set up to defend against Rome.
         -So, Trajan was satisfied and returned to Rome, where he held a triumph.
-Decebalus, of course, had other plans.  He saw no reason to actually submit to Rome, so he didn't take this surrender seriously and just used the money Trajan sent to do the same old shit as before.
   -Trajan acknowledged that it was possible, of course, for the Romans to have to invade Dacia again, so he had Apollodorus build what would come to be known as "Trajan's Bridge", a big-ass stone bridge across the Danube River which at that point was the first bridge to be built across that particular river, but it was  also to be the longest bridge ever built for the next 1000 years!  It was 1,100 meters long, 15 meters wide, and 19 meters tall.
-106 AD- Trajan ends up invading Dacia once again in the spring, leading the troops personally just like before.
   -Decebalus had been trying to agitate neighboring barbarian tribes to attack the Romans, so Trajan had finally decided that enough was enough.
      -This time, Trajan decided that Decebalus was to be killed and the entire kingdom of Dacia be brought under Roman rule as an annexed territory of Rome.
      -The legion marched straight for the capital, Sarmizegetusa Regia, and when they arrived there the besieged the city.
         -However, once again the Dacians proved to be surprisingly tenacious in their defense, so Trajan finally resorted to destroying the city's aqueducts so that they were cut off from their water supply.
            -Of course, this caused the city to surrender. 
               -Decebalus was on the run after this, but he eventually committed suicide before he could be caught.  His decapitated head was sent to Trajan.
-Trajan then ordered that Sarmizegetusa Regia be razed, and he had a new provincial capital be built roughly 40 km away (its official name was "Colonia Ulpia Traiana Augusta Dacica Sarmizegetusa").
   -Dacia was to be hte last major province added to the empire.  It would remain in the empire until the 270s AD.
      -Dacia proved to be a great addition to the empire because it had vast amounts of resources such as iron and shit.
      -When Trajan returned back to Rome, he brought with him all of Decebalus' treasures, a scene not witnessed since the days of Pompey returning after his conquests in the East.
-Rome was now extremely rich and not hurting for money at all.
   -Trajan and Apollodorus began planning for a bunch of new projects, and the future looked very bright indeed! 
      -One of these projects was the huge "Trajan's Forum", another was "Trajan's Column".
         -Trajan's Column was 100 feet high, and covered by 600 feet of sculptures telling the story of Trajan's victories; it actually is still standing today! 
            -Much of the info we get about the Dacian Wars is from Trajan's Column, so of course a lot of the info is propaganda and shit and should be taken with a grain of salt (like all historical sources!).

Imperial Stop Gap

-So Domitian was dead, and Nerva was now princeps of Rome.
   -Nerva had been an adviser to Domitian and the other Flavian emperors (and even as far back as Nero!), so he was a safe pick to be princeps by the Senate because he was old, had no sons, had stayed in the background during his career, and had no military experience.
      -He was also seen as a stop gap so that a proper emperor could be chosen to replace him once he croaked, since Domitian had been assassinated and no proper heir had been prepared.  So, essentially Nerva was basically a session emperor. 
   -For the first time since Augustus, the Senate felt like it had power again. 
   -Nerva immediately declared an end to "treason trials" and an end to the executions of senators.  Also, political prisoners were freed, confiscated property was returned, and many who were exiled were recalled.
      -However, although the Senate was happy, the Praetorian Guard and the provincial legions felt like they had been left out in the cold, especially since they had loved Domitian and couldn't believe that Nerva had pardoned his assassins.  In response, Nerva tried to give everyone a bonus in pay or something, but this didn't help to improve their opinion of him as little more than a puppet of the corrupt Senate.
-Nerva probably meant well with his economic policies (lower taxes, expanded social welfare programs, among a bunch of other stuff).
   -To support his various schemes, Nerva began issuing loans to those who wished to buy up property in Italy (with 5% interest) as the imperial treasury was running low.
      -However, the scheme just wasn't working quickly or efficiently enough, so Nerva set up a commission to figure out how to cut spending by getting rid of some of the fat.
         -The commission was actually a success and did manage to come up with some good ideas.
            -For example, Domitian had held so many game days an festival celebrations and shit to make everyone happy, but Domitian had been able to do this because taxes were so high.  When Nerva lowered the taxes, the games and festivals were way too expensive.  Therefore, the commission recommended that Nerva trim down the public celebrations to only the necessary religious holidays, which Nerva did.  The commission also recommended melting down all of his Domitian's gold statues and treasure and shit, which there were a bunch of.  They also held a public auction for all of his treasure, which he had hoarded the entire time he was in power.
-Unfortunately, because Nerva had made it clear that there would be no political purges to keep the Senate in line, it quickly devolved into political gridlock and corruption.
   -Nerva allowed this because the Senate were his only allies in terms of power.
      -Tyranny had been exchanged for anarchy!
         -Soon, because of the chaos everyone began to view Nerva as weak and inefficient as a leader.  It was obvious that he wasn't suited for the job.
            -A conspiracy to overthrow Nerva (led by a senator named Calpurnius Crassus) was uncovered, and even then Nerva refused to have the conspirators executed!
-97 AD- the Praetorians were realizing tat the situation was unraveling rapidly, so they began to plan a coup, seeing him as a spineless puppet of the Senate.
   -Led by the new prefect Casperius Aelianus led by the Praetorians in revolt against Nerva, besieged the imperial palace, and took Nerva hostage.
      -Fearing for his life, Nerva agreed to bring Domitian's killers to justice (in which he was successful), and was then forced to publicly thank the Praetorians for "reminding him to do his duty" (whoa!).
         -Nerva knew he was in bad shape and that if he didn't name an heir and were to die soon or lose power, then the empire would fall into chaos again.  So, he decided to choose an heir that was popular with the legions (in an attempt to get them on his side)- Marcus Ulpius Traianus (AKA Trajan), a legionary commander. 
            -This really helped alleviate the tension that had been mounting (except of course with the Senate, who liked that Nerva had no control over them).
-Trajan was born in the town of Italica in the province of Hispania Baettica (outside of modern-day Santiponce, Seville, Spain). 
   -His place of birth is important because Trajan would be Rome's first princeps that wasn't born in Italia.  However, it's unclear as to if Trajan's family were Romans (as in, from the city of Roman), native Iberians, or a mix.  However, it's obvious that they weren't a traditional patrician family (at least, not until Trajan's father became a senator under Vespasian and/or Titus before going on to become the governor of Syria in 76 AD). 
      -Family rose to prominence under the Flavian dynasty.
         -Because of the family (or at least Trajan with his father) relocating to Syria, Trajan eventually went on to serve as military tribune of the legions stationed in Syria, and soon began to quickly ascend the cursus honorum. 
            -Became praetor in 85 AD and was appointed as commander of the legions in Hispania Tarraconensis.  As commander, Trajan was a natural leader and brilliant tactician, and was very inspiring but also could be laid-back, strict but fair, etc. (i.e. quite versatile depending on the situation).  In this way he was very similar to Julius Caesar.  He was a great administrator, too.
               -Favored by Domitian due to to his (Trajan's) support during Saturninus' rebellion.         
   -At some point in the 90s AD Trajan married a noblewoman named Pompeia Plotina.
   -91 AD- Trajan was appointed consul and soon after served as governor in Moesia and Germania Superior.
   -98 AD- Trajan was named consul again, and Nerva died soon after (after having been in office for only 16 months).
      -Because he was so popular and the obvious next logical choice for princeps, Trajan became the next emperor of the Roman Empire!
       

What Time is It?

-January 1, 89 AD- two legions in Germania Superior, led by the provincial governor Lucius Antonius Saturninus, refused to renew their paths to Domitian, so the stability of the empire was once again in jeopardy.  It's also possible that there was a wider conspiracy as well with other senators.
   -This rebellion echoed Vitellius' revolt 20 years earlier.
      -However, unlike Galba, the legions loved Domitian.
         -Because of this, the uprising was easily quelled by Labius Maximus, governor of Germania Inferior.  However, all of Saturninus' records were burned, so any possible evidence of a wider conspiracy was lost.
            -All we do know is that Saturninus had allegedly struck a deal with the Chatti tribe to conbine forces and take on Domitian.  The Chatti were to cross where the Rhine was frozen; however, there was an early thaw, so during this time the Chatti were stuck on the German side of the river.
            -In response to the rebellion, Domitian had not only ordered Maximus to attack Saturninus, but had also moved north himself with his own Praetorian army.
               -He also ordered a legion from Hispania Terraconense to march towards Germania Superior.
                  -This legion was led by Marcus Ulpius Traianus (AKA future princeps Trajan!).
            -Anyway, because the Chatti had been unable to cross the Rhine, Saturninus' plans were fucked.  Thus, he ended up surrendering to Maximus. 
               -Saturninus and his officers were executed, and Saturninus' legions were relocated to the province of Pannonia.
                  -Maximus was then given the governorship of Syria, while Trajan was given the consulship in 91 AD (he would also go on to be a governor of either Pannonia or Germania Superior, it's unclear which one).
-90 AD- Domitian appointed himself consul and appointed as his co-consul a dude named Marcus Cocceius Nerva (future princeps Nerva).
   -Kind of a mystery as to why Nerva was chosen, as he was a bit of a dark horse candidate.
      -He had played a major role in exposing the Pisonian conspiracy during Nero's reign, so maybe that had something to do with it?
   -Nerva bio:
      -Born in 30 AD to a prominent family of the Italian peninsula (not nobility, however).
      -Grandfather had connections with Tiberius and had spent time in Capri ;)
      -Father had served as consul under Caligula.
      -Nerva himself never seemed to actively pursue power, instead preferring to work behind the scenes as a loyal adviser.  He was also loved by Nero.
      -Friends with Vespasian.
      -Sister was married to Otho's brother, but surprisingly Nerva stayed loyal to Vespasian, not Otho.
      -Named consul in 71 AD, which was usually reserved for a member of the imperial family, so this was a big deal.
         -Nerva was a powerful member of the political scene during the Flavian dynasty, even if it was not officially documented in the chronicles at the time.
            -Doesn't officially pop up until 90 AD (when he is appointed as Domitian's co-consul).
-Anyway, Saturninus' rebellion seemed to be the last straw for Domitian, finally pushing him into full paranoia mode, which only grew worse over time. 
   -It was this period in which Domitian's bad reputation really stems from.
   -However, Domitian had every right to be paranoid, and even he knew that he was spinning out of control.  Unfortunately, he felt that he had no choice to be ruthless, so it was around this time that he brought back the "treason trials" (i.e. purges) that had previously been outlawed by Titus.
      -Eventually began to confiscate the property of the executed and exiled, which wasn't a good look.
-96 AD- the beginning of Domitian's downfall.
   -Court officials began conspiring against him, believing that if they didn't do something ASAP then they were doomed.
      -This conspiracy was allegedly formed after Domitian executed an ex-slave of Nero's who had helped Nero escape the palace and commit suicide, claiming that this slave hadn't been "loyal enough" even though he had served the princeps for years.
      -The conspirators included Parthenius (Domitian's chamberlain), Maximus (Parthenius' ex-slave), and Stephanus (a steward of Flavia Domitilla, Domitian's niece), and maybe some others, but it's unclear.
         -The legend is that Domitian was told by a seer that he would die around lunchtime, so he always got antsy arouind that time and would always ask what time it was until the hour passed.
            -However, on the day of his assassination, one of his servants lied to Domitian and said it was later than it actually was, so Domitian relaxed and was in his room.  Stephanus then came in and attacked him with a knife he had sneaked in his bandaged arm and sling (he had been pretending to be injured).  Domitian did end up putting up a good fight, but eventually others came in and helped stab him to death.  Domitian was 45 years old, and had ruled the empire for 15 years.
               -His body was then smuggled out of the palace and cremated.
-Speculation abounds as to who exactly was involved in the conspiracy, and it was definitely shady that Nerva, who was named princeps after Domitian's death, didn't really seem to work that hard to get to the bottom of who was really behind Domitian's assassination.  Additionally, those who WERE caught weren't actually punished harshly at all!
-The Senate then passed a bunch of laws and decrees that tried to erase Domitian's memory completely- statues and art of Domitian was changed to look like Nerva, Domitian's name was removed from public works, etc.
   -The masses (including the legions (but not including the officers)), however, were pissed!  They had really loved Domitian!

Mock Triumphs

-How did Domitian pay for all of his construction projects and shit?
   -By using his efficient bureaucracy to tax the fuck out of the rich!
      -He had undercut the elite politically, and was now doing so economically.
         -Eventually, he would just start to straight-up jack elites' property by confiscating it in the name of the government. 
            -In the past, emperors usually just borrowed money without ever worrying about how to pay it back.
-Domitian also tried to bring back moral legislation (the "Lex Julias") as an attempt to emulate Augustus.
   -Of course, the Lex Julia was very unpopular with just about everyone. 
-85 AD- Domitian appointed himself censor in order to officially legislate public morality.
   -For example, adultery was now highly illegal, and banging the Vestal Virgins was now a capital offense.
      -Specific examples: an Equestrian was banned from the Senate for acting on stage (which Domitian considered to be worse than prostitution (haha)!
      -While the Lex Julia stuff concerning sex was dumb (which everyone knew), the anti-corruption stuff was clearly much needed.
   -As a final "fuck you" to the elites, he even limited the amount of land that they could use for vineyards!
-As for the common folk, opinions were mixed about Domitian- he was simultaneously loved, hated, respected, and feared, depending on who you asked.
   -Most of the regular soldiers in the legions loved him too, but the officers did not.
      -Regular soldiers loved him because he gave them a big pay raise, and therefore Domitian almost never had to worry about a revolt.
         -The pay raise was the result of the legions' victory against the Chatti, a warlike Germanic tribe.  It's unclear as to why exactly Domitian ordered a war with the Chatti, but many sources suggest that Domitian was looking for a reason to fight so he could glorify himself with a military victory and triumph (which included games and parties and shit).
            -Because of this victory, Domitian gave himself the additional name "Germanicus".
            -Tacitus (among others) famously called this celebration a "mock triumph".
-Because of the "mock triumph" (or maybe just because it was time), Agricola was recalled from Britannia in 85 AD.
   -Around this time many of the legions in Britannia were transferred to Germania to fight against Dacia (the Dacians were closely related to Thracians), a powerful Carpathian kingdom which was growing to be a really serious threat. 
      -This was Domitian's first real test as princeps. 
      -Domitian was not interested in expanding the empire's borders, believing that the legions should be used primarily for the empire's defense; wars of expansion were just a monumental waste of time and resources.
         -Therefore, Domitian's greatest achievement in terms of the military was his establishment of the "Limes Germanicus", a line of frontier fortifications built along the Rhine and Danube rivers (eventually stretching to a total of 350 miles (560 km)!).
            -Included approximately 60 forts and 900 watchtowers.
            -However, it should be noted that Domitian neither started nor complete this project, but he was a key figure in getting most of it done (before it was finally completed by Hadrian).
               -Of course, the military elites felt that Domitian was just being a pussy and that the legions should be used primarily for offense, NOT defense!
-Anyway, because of all of the chaos of 69 AD and the years surrounding it, the Germanic hordes had become more bold in their raids on Roman lands.
   -Shit finally reached a head when the Dacians invaded the Roman province of Moesia (basically modern-day Serbia and Kosovo). 
      -Domitian personally led a force to Moesia (along with some Praetorians and Cornelius Fuscus, a Praetorian prefect.
         -Domitian quickly drove off the Dacian army and then returned to Rome to celebrate his second triumph.  However, this triumph was premature, as when Fuscus was securing Moesia with four of the leftover legions, he stupidly led them into Dacia, thinking that the the territory was populated by a loose collection of tribes.
            -However, Dacia was in fact a legitimate kingdom and had been united under a powerful king named Decebalus by the Romans (which literally meant "He With the Strength of 10 Men").  Fuscus marched his legions right into a trap near Tapae (a fort located in modern-day Transylvania, Romania).  There, Fuscus and his army were completely slaughtered by the Dacians.  The Praetorian standard was also captured!
-Because of this epic blunder, Domitian marched three of the legions back to Moesia to secure it and to make sure that the Dacians wouldn't attempt a counterattack.
-87 and 88 AD- Domitian sent Roman legions into Dacia to crush Decebalus.
   -A second battle was actually fought again at Tapae, but this time the Romans achieved victory.
-January 1, 89 AD- Lucius Antonius Saturninus, a Roman senator and governor of Germania Superior, decided to lead a revolt against Domitian with his two legions.
   -Panicked, Domitian surprisingly signed a treaty with Decebalus which made Dacia a client kingdom of Rome (and also paid the kingdom a bunch of money to not invade Moesia), and in return Dacia would provide additional troops to help Domitian take on Saturninus.
      -Of course, once word got out about what went down it ended up being a huge political scandal for Domitian.

The Forgotten Son

-81 AD- Titus had died, so his younger brother, Domitian, was now princeps.
   -It's highly possible that historical sources are heavily biased against Domitian, especially by later historians due to his aggressive persecution of Christians.
      -However, 20th century historians have been less harsh, pointing out that while he was certainly an autocrat, he seems to have been more efficient and rational than some of the previous emperors.
-Domitian was born in 51 AD, a son of Vespasian and younger brother of Titus.
   -Because Titus was older, Vespasian naturally began to prep his as his heir to the throne.
   -He grew up with his mom and sister (Domitilla the Younger) in Rome and was kind of a loner.
      -Allegedly liked to spend time stabbing flies with pens (haha).
   -He was also in Rome during all the chaos leading up to Nero's suicide and the turmoil of 69 AD.
      -It was probably obvious to Domitian that loyalty didn't mean shit and power could shift at the drop of a hat.
      -During the chaos he was placed under house arrest by Vitellius during Vespasian's rebellion.
         -During the siege of Rome, soon after his uncle (Vespasian's brother) Sabinus was killed Domitian was snuck out of the palace dressed as an Isis cult member.
            -Before his dad arrived in Rome, Domitian was technically supposed to rule in Vespasian's place until his father could take over, as Titus was also with Vespasian during this time.  However, Domitian was overshadowed by Mucianus, and it was here that Domitian probably grew to hate the Senate and bureaucrats, recognizing that they were usually just blowhards with no real power.
            -When his father officially became princeps, Domitian craved respect and wanted to join the legions, and actually ended up convincing his dad to let him do so!  However, although he was sent to command troops to crush the Batavian revolt, it ended before he got there!  He then tried to join the legions in Germania, but was ignored.
   -Domitian was stuck.  He was shut out of political and military power, and Vespasian seemed to not give a shit, only focusing on Titus. 
      -Thus, Domitian just spent most of his time in the palace reading and writing.
      -However, it does appear that Titus tried to make an effort to include Domitian in stuff like political offices and stuff.
   -70 AD- married Domitia Longina, youngest daughter of Corbulo.  This was a great match betcause Domitia's family hated Nero and this solidified the Flavians as a truly anti-Nero dynasty. 
      -Surprisingly, they actually were in love and seemed like a happy couple!
   -When Titus became princeps, though, Domitian continued to be snubbed in terms of moving up in political power.
      -It's here that historians begin to claim that Domitian began to grow actively spiteful of his brother and started plotting against his life.
         -Of course, when Titus died, there were conspiracy theories that Domitian was somehow involved, especially since he didn't seem too shaken up by his brother's death.
-Domitian had a totally different approach to ruling as princeps than any previous emperors before him.
   -All the previous emperors at least tried (or pretended to try) to have a balance of power or acknowledge the legitimacy of political entities like the Senate or the consuls.
      -However, Domitian saw these institutions as inefficient at best, and dangerous at worst.
         -The Republic had been dead for a century, so why pretend any other way?  In his mind, what Rome truly needed was simply a powerful, enlightened dictator, and anything else was a waste of time. 
            -His model?  Augustus.  However, Domitian failed to realize that Augustus may have had all the power, but always worked hard to give the illusion that he shared his power with others, and then would privately reward those who supported him. 
               -Case in point- Augustus was revered as a god!  Domitian, unfortunately, was not.
-Domitian's first task was to reinforce the belief that the imperial dynasties were divinely ordained, and the previous emperors were gods/demigods, including his older brother and father (which also implied that he was of divine lineage also, of course).
   -He also finished construction on the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, as well as the Arch of Titus.
   -He then stripped the Senate of all of its authority and input on imperial decision-making.
      -Of course, this caused the elites to completely despise of him, but, of course, Domitian DGAF.
         -The common people loved him for this, especially since he seemed to really want to cut out all the excess fat and corruption of the government.
         -Instead of taking on senators as members of his administration, he instead took on equestrians, who otherwise would have been blocked from these posts.
            -He also refused to appoint family members just because they were family, instead choosing those whom he deemed best for the job.
               -Based on these changes, Domitian was actually shaping up to be a pretty good emperor!

Friends, I Have Wasted a Day

-During Vespasian's time as princeps, the Romans had expanded significantly into Britannia. 
   -Troops were led by General Gnaeus Julius Agricola.
      -Born in 40 AD into a family of senators in the province of Gallia Narbonensis .
         -His father had been executed by Caligula.
         -58 AD- served as a military tribune in 58 AD during Boudica's Rebellion.
         -64 AD- served as quaestor in the province of Asia in 64 AD.
            -During this time his wife gave birth to Julia Agricola (who would eventually marry the historian Tacitus).
         -66 AD- served as pleb tribune.
         -68 AD- served as praetor.
         -69 AD- mother (Julia Procilla) was (accidentally?) killed by Otho's marauding troops when they raided her estate (unclear as to what exactly went down) in northwest Italia (modern-day Liguria) which obviously caused him to support Vespasian during the Year of the Four Emperors.
            -Vespasian rewarded Agricola's loyalty by putting him in charge of the troops in Britannia. 
               -There had been so much chaos in Britannia during this time in terms of revolts and uprisings and shit due to the lack of order in Rome, and Agricola's main assignment was pacifying the Brigantes, a Britannic tribe based out of modern-day Yorkshire.
                  -Although Agricola was relatively successful in managing the troops in Britannia, he never truly pacified the region, and eventually the future princeps Hadrian would be construct a wall (Hadrian's Wall) to try and divide the territory in order to cut off supply lines and reinforcements from the untamed wilds of Caledonia (modern-day Scotland).
            -Agricola then served as governor in Gallia Aquitania in 73/74 AD.
         -In 76/77 AD he served as consul before finally returning to Britannia as a governor in 78 AD.  He would remain there for seven more years.
            -As governor, his first challenge was against the Ordovices, a Britannic tribe based out of modern-day Wales who were rising up against the Romans.
               -During this time Agricola also developed a reputation as being strict and no-nonsense, but also honest and fair (with both his Roman troops AND the native population).
               -Also introduced education programs for local children of the nobility in order to try and make the region more civilized (as opposed to a provincial backwater).
               -Also tried to implement Roman-style city planning to make the cities less barbaric and more organized.
         -79 AD- Agricola led a campaign north into Caledonia to try and conquer the entire island of Britannia.
            -While he did make it all the way to the northern coast of Britannia, Caledonia was never truly pacified.
-79 AD- Titus (eldest son of Vespasian) was now princeps of the Roman Empire.
   -Born in 39 AD and raised in Rome. 
      -Classmate of Claudius' son Brittanicus (before he died (or was murdered), of course).
      -Talented orator and athlete, was appointed as military tribune in 57 AD in Germania before being transferred to Britannia in 59 AD during Boudica's Rebellion (possibly serving alongside Agricola).
   -63 AD- married Arrecina Tertulla (came from a prominent Equestrian family), but she died soon after this.
   -65 AD- married Marcia Furnilla (came from a powerful noble family), but her family was involved in the Pisonian Conspiracy so he divorced her to avoid any unnecessary drama.
      -He never remarried, but he definitely had plenty of mistresses.
   -66 AD- when Vespasian was assigned to crush the Jewish Revolt in 66 AD, he brought Titus with him as a part of his entourage, as Titus was by now a skilled tactician and diplomat.
      -When Vespasian began working to secure imperial rule, he left Titus in charge of managing the Jewish Revolt.
      -When Titus returned to Rome, he was awarded a triumph for his victories!
         -He then had a bunch of responsibilities, but his main job was being Praetorian prefect.
            -Unfortunately, because he was the "enforcer" of Vespasian's will, he gained a reputation for being harsh and ruthless, not hesitating to execute anyone whom he suspected of being an enemy of the state.  Also, because he wasn't married, rumors spread that he was a sex fiend and loved to engage in wild debauchery, so the public began to fear that he was another Nero in the making.
               -It was also scandalous that he had been hooking up with the Jewish puppet queen Berenice who had fled Judea during the Revolt and had been living with Titus since 75 AD.
               -Because the Romans were not down with Eastern queens (everyone STILL had a bad taste in their mouth from Cleopatra), pressure from public opinion eventually caused Titus to send her back to Judea.
-Once Titus became princeps, he put everyone's minds to ease because he was definitely NOT like Nero. 
   -He immediately abolished the treason courts and became renowned for his generosity.
      -However, it's also possible that he was built up to be this amazing emperor in order to contrast with how shitty his younger brother, Domitian, would be when he became the next princeps.
   -August/October 79 AD- Titus' first challenge was managing the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, which destroyed Pompeii and other cities in Campania.
      -It's estimated that between 10,000-25,000 people died, including Pliny the Elder!
         -The only good thing about the eruption of Mount Vesuvius was that it almost completely preserved the city of Pompeii, which is good news for us (but obviously pretty shitty for all of the people that died at the time!).
   -80 AD- another fire hits Rome, so Titus devotes much of the imperial treasury to relief and rebuilding efforts. 
      -He also finishes construction on the Colosseum!  Because of this, the people really loved him.
         -However, Titus' glorious reign was to be short-lived :(  In September 81 AD he got sick while traveling in Italia and died.
            -His last words were quite mysterious- "I have made but one mistake..." (whatever the fuck that means!  Maybe something to do with Domitian?).